Caratacus (or Caractacus) was a Briton tribal leader who led the resistance against the Roman conquest of Britannia during the 1st century CE. When Roman emperor Claudius (reign 41-54 CE) invaded in 43 CE, Caratacus and his brother, Togodumnus, ruled the Catuvellauni tribal kingdom, which dominated much of southern Britain. Their forces were unable to prevent the Roman capture of Camulodunum, and Togodumnus was killed. Caratacus escaped and continued the struggle among the Silures of Wales. A skilled guerrilla commander, Caratacus won multiple victories before suffering a decisive defeat in 50 CE. Betrayed to the Romans by Cartimandua of the Brigantes, Caratacus was taken to Rome. His dignified address before Claudius impressed the emperor, who allowed him to live out his remaining years in Italy. Caratacus later became an icon of British patriotism.
Born into Briton Tribal Royalty
Caratacus was the son of Cunobelinus, the great Catuvellauni king of the 1st century CE. From the sacred capital of Camulodunum, Cunobelinus ruled over much of southern Britannia. His father – or possibly the uncle – had been Cassivellaunus, who had fought Julius Caesar in 54 BCE. Although Caesar had been victorious in his invasion of the island, the ongoing war in Gaul necessitated a Roman withdrawal. Cassivellaunus shrugged off any concessions forced upon him by the Romans and resumed his ambitions of Catuvellauni tribal hegemony.
During his four-decade-long rule, Cunobelinus profited from the growing trade with the Roman world, but he never trusted the Romans. The aged Catuvellauni king was happy to see the same anti-Roman stance in his sons, Caratacus and Togodumnus. A third son, Adminius, favored friendly relations and ended up in exile at the court of Emperor Caligula (reign 37-41 CE). Upon the death of Cunobelinus in CE 41 or 42, Caratacus and Togodumnus jointly inherited their father's kingdom. While Caratacus ruled over the lands north of the Thames, Togodumnus lorded over those to the south.
Claudius's Conquest of Britannia
Although Cunobelinus had ruled wisely and never faced any uprising, he had naturally made enemies among rival chiefs. Among these was Verica of the Atrebates, who had maintained his independence from the Catuvellauni in the southern Hampshire area. In 43 CE, however, Verica was apparently driven from his lands by Caratacus and Togodumnus. To regain them, he sought aid from Rome. Verica's pleas for help gave Emperor Claudius the pretext for an invasion of Britannia. Claudius yearned for a legacy on par with Caesar or Augustus, and only a great conquest – like that of Britannia – would make it so.
Gallic merchants sailing the Channel informed Caratacus and Togodumnus of a large Roman army gathering at Gesoriacum. To oppose any landing on the shores of Britannia, the two royal brothers summoned the chiefs of their tribal kingdom. On their ceremonial chariots, representatives of the Catuvellauni, Trinovantes, Cantii, Dobunni, and northern Atrebates gathered at the sacred capital of Camulodunum. They swore to muster their armies and unite against the invader.
The Briton army awaited the Roman fleet on the Cantii coast. However, after a lengthy wait, no Roman fleet appeared. The Roman tardiness was due to an initial refusal by the legions to partake in the campaign, followed by unfavorable winds that drove the fleet back to the Gallic shore. When the Roman army landed on the Cantii coast, they found no one there to oppose their landing. Figuring that no invasion was forthcoming after all, the Briton army had disbanded.
By the time Caratacus and Togodumnus had reassembled their forces, it was too late to throw the fortified invader back into the sea. Although Caratacus and Togodumnus withdrew their forces into swamps and forests, the Roman commander, Aulus Plautius, was able to seek them out and defeat them both. Although Caratacus and his brother escaped, the Roman victory induced the Dobunni to surrender.
Plautius continued his advance, but Briton resistance stiffened at a river crossing – likely the Medway – and in the swampy grounds of the Thames Delta. Ambushes and skirmishes brought the Romans to a halt south of the Thames. Togodumnus was killed in the fighting. His death galvanized Briton resistance under the leadership of his brother Caratacus.
Late in the summer of 43 CE, Emperor Claudius arrived to lead his army across the Thames. The Britons had pulled back to defend Camulodunum. To the Britons, whoever held Camulodunum could invoke the power and blessing of Camulos, their war god. But it was the Romans, the mythological sons of Mars, who proved victorious. Eleven tribal kings surrendered to Claudius. King Cogidubnus (or Cogidumnus) of the Regni, who had lived under Catuvellauni suzerainty, became the prominent king of southeast Britannia and a loyal ally of Rome. However, Caratacus had escaped – his struggle with Rome was just beginning.
Resistance Among the Silures
Caratacus found refuge among the Silures of southern Wales, with whom he continued the war of resistance. Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula replaced Plautius in 47 CE. Ostorius faced ongoing fighting along the Wales frontier, as well as with the Brigantes of the Pennines.
Led by Caratacus, the Silures compensated for their inferior numbers and equipment with cunning and knowledge of the land. Through ambushes and guerrilla tactics, Caratacus won many engagements. As his fame among the Britons grew, the Ordovices of central-northwest Wales joined the resistance against Rome. In 49 CE, Ostorius was forced to deploy the Twentieth Legion on the Silures frontier.
In 50 CE, Caratacus and his Britons awaited the Roman army behind a stone rampart. On either side, the rampart was flanked by steep hills, while in front, a gentle slope led down to a river. The location was in Silures territory, and the river was possibly the Severn. On the far bank of the river, Ostorius' army stood ready for the attack. Encouraging his men, Caratacus swore "that this was the day, this the battle, which would either win back their freedom or enslave them forever" (Tacitus, Annals, 12. 33). Briton war songs and insults echoed across the river. The Roman soldiers, in turn, "shouted for battle, clamoring that courage could overcome everything" (Tacitus, Annals, 12. 35).
The Romans easily forded the river, but were met by a hail of javelins, slingshots, and stones. The Romans responded with their own javelins, but these mostly clanged off the rampart stones. The legions formed a roof of locked shields and kept coming. Reaching the rampart, they dismantled it with bare hands and entrenching tools. Briton charges to seal the breakthrough were shattered by shield walls of heavily armored legionaries. They were reinforced by auxiliaries armed with broadswords and spears. Volleys of javelins thrown by auxiliaries threw the Briton ranks into disorder. The legionaries enjoyed the advantage of lorica hamata (chain mail) or lorica segementata (a type of plate armor), while most Britons lacked body armor. As their dead mounted, the survivors fled towards the hills.
The Capture of Caratacus
The Roman victory was won against formidable odds. Among the captives were Caratacus' wife and daughter, and his brother surrendered. Caratacus again escaped and sought sanctuary with Cartimandua (or Cartismandua), queen of the Brigantes. The Brigantes were largely anti-Roman, but Cartimandua sought to endear herself to the invaders and handed Caratacus over to the Romans.
The captive Caratacus was shipped across the Channel and taken to Rome in 51 CE. While Ostorius Scapula was awarded the triumphal honors, it was Caratacus who was the man of the moment. His reputation had spread beyond Britannia to Italy itself. "Even at Rome his name meant something," wrote Tacitus (Annals, 12. 37).
The Praetorian Guard was drawn up in parade. With his young wife, Agrippina the Younger, on a dais nearby, Emperor Claudius sat in a tribunal to judge the defeated. Minor Briton nobles bound in chains were paraded past the dais, followed by displays of captured loot and enemy standards. Then came the brother, the wife, and the daughter of Caratacus. Finally, Caratacus was presented to the emperor. The other captives had approached with downcast looks and fearfully begged for mercy. Not so Caratacus, who stood proudly and spoke:
If you want to rule the world, does it follow that everyone else welcomes enslavement? If I had surrendered without a blow before being brought before you, neither my downfall nor your triumph would have become famous. If you execute me, they will be forgotten. Spare me, and I shall be an everlasting token of your mercy!
(Tacitus, Annals, 12. 37)
Impressed by the boldness of the vanquished king, Claudius spared him and his family. Released from their chains, Caratacus and his family offered to Agrippina the same homage they had shown to the emperor. Senators honored Caratacus with speeches, declaring him "equal in glory to any previous Roman general's exhibition of a captured king" (Tacitus, Annals, 12. 38). Caratacus was allowed to live out his life, alongside his wife and children, in Italy. Amazed at the wealth and grandeur of Rome, he remarked: "Why do you, who have got so many and so fine possessions, covet our poor tents?" (Dio, Book 61. 33, note 1).
The Legacy of Caratacus
Caratacus was propagandized in the Victorian and Edwardian eras as a symbol of national pride and identity. At the same time, however, the Roman conquest of Britannia was viewed in a positive light, bringing civilization and later Christianity to the barbarian tribes. To explain this apparent juxtaposition, the image of Caratacus as an admirable and noble leader, whom even the mighty Roman Empire held in utmost respect, reinforced the role of the British as a superior people and deserving rulers of their own empire. Thus, paradoxically, the chieftain who had so bitterly resisted imperial subjugation was used to justify the imperial ambitions of those who claimed him as part of their national heritage.
