James A. Garfield (1831-1881) was an American politician from Ohio who served as the 20th president of the United States from 4 March 1881 until his death the following 19 September. A popular, hard-working man, he was driven by his abolitionist beliefs to join the Republican Party in the mid-1850s. He fought for the Union during the American Civil War (1861-1865) and, after winning election to Congress, played a pivotal role in Reconstruction. He was unexpectedly elevated to the presidency in 1881, but his tenure was cut short when he was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau, a disillusioned office-seeker.
Early Life
James Abram Garfield was born in a log cabin in the frontier town of Orange, Ohio, on 19 November 1831. He was the youngest of five children born to Abram Garfield, a poor farmer, and his wife Eliza Ballou Garfield. James was not yet two years old when, in 1833, his father suddenly died, leaving the bereft Eliza to not only care for the children alone but also to run the family farm. Despite her weighty responsibilities, Eliza comforted herself by doting on her youngest son, with whom she formed a close bond. As James got older, he helped around the farm wherever and however he could. His mother remarried in 1842 to Warren Belden, whom she divorced eight years later. James stood by his mother during her difficult marriage, and, when Belden died in 1880, he noted the death with satisfaction in his diary.
Though he never liked farming, Garfield was fond of the outdoors and took pleasure in hunting. He was also a voracious reader, seeking escape from his impoverished reality in books; he particularly enjoyed fiction and history and loved reading about adventures of sailors at sea. By the time he was 16, he had decided he wanted to be a sailor and go off on his own adventures. In August 1848, he traveled to Cleveland, Ohio, to look for work, but was shocked and disappointed by the drunkenness of the sea captain to whom he had applied for a job. Disillusioned, he instead got a job as a driver on a canal boat, working to transport goods between Cleveland and Pittsburgh. Despite working in a canal, Garfield did not know how to swim – during his 6-week tenure, he fell into the water 16 times and contracted malaria.
When he returned home to recover, his mother begged him to give up his dreams of the sea and focus on his education. He heeded her advice and, in late 1848, enrolled in the Geauga seminary school in the nearby town of Chester, Ohio. Garfield was a diligent student who excelled at his studies and was even recognized as the school's prize Latin student. While he attended school, he supported himself by working as a carpenter and part-time schoolteacher. He also fell in love with one of the other students, Lucretia Rudolph, beginning a long romantic courtship. In March 1850, at the age of 18, Garfield experienced a religious awakening and was baptized into the Christian denomination, followed by his mother, the Disciples of Christ. In the next few years, he often worked as a preacher.
After graduating from Geauga in 1850, Garfield decided to further his education and enrolled in the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (modern Hiram College). In 1854, he entered Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, graduating as salutatorian two years later. Although he worked hard and took his studies seriously, Garfield always made time for fun. He was popular amongst his classmates and could often be found hunting, fishing, playing billiards, or even drinking, which he did in moderation. He had an imposing physical appearance; according to James D. Lockett, he was "almost six feet tall, with broad shoulders and a massive head topped by a shock of unruly hair…his ability to outrun and outwrestle his schoolmates instilled automatic respect" (Lockett, EBSCO).
Political Beginnings & Civil War
In 1856, Garfield was hired as an instructor at the Eclectic Institute in Hiram, where he taught a wide range of subjects including English, history, geology, and mathematics. At the same time, he found himself increasingly drawn toward politics – by this point, the question of slavery was threatening to tear the nation apart along sectional lines, with the 'free states' of the North pitted against the 'slave states' of the South. Garfield detested slavery and supported the abolitionist cause. During the US presidential election of 1856, he campaigned for John C. Frémont, candidate of the antislavery Republican Party (Frémont would ultimately lose the election to Democrat James Buchanan). Garfield's fervent abolitionism and support for Frémont would win him popularity amongst local Republican leaders. With their support, he ran for an Ohio state senate seat in 1859 and won.
By the time of Garfield's political victory, he was already a married man – he had wed his longtime sweetheart Lucretia, or 'Crete' as he lovingly called her, on 11 November 1858. They would ultimately have seven children, five of whom would survive infancy. As he settled into married life, Garfield somehow found the time to teach himself law; in early 1861, he was admitted to the Ohio bar. At only 30 years old, he had racked up an impressive resume including husband, father, schoolteacher, preacher, politician, lawyer. But he was soon to add another job to the list: soldier.
By the spring of 1861, eleven slave-holding states had seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. Garfield saw the impending civil war as a chance to eradicate the institution of slavery forever. "I am inclined to believe," he said, "that the sin of slavery is one…that without the shedding of blood, there is no remission" (quoted by Justus Doenecke, Miller Center). In August 1861, Garfield received a commission as a colonel in the US Army and was put in charge of the 42nd Ohio Infantry Regiment. He was responsible for recruitment, but due to his popularity in the community of Hiram where he taught, he had no difficulty filling the ranks with eager young men.
In early 1862, he was given command of the 18th Brigade and was tasked with driving the Confederates out of eastern Kentucky. On 9 January, he attacked a small detachment of rebel forces at the Battle of Middle Creek, forcing them to withdraw. In recognition of this victory, he was promoted to brigadier general. Garfield and his men were then ordered to join Union Major General Ulysses S. Grant, whose Army of the Cumberland was currently invading Tennessee. Garfield arrived in time to participate in the second day of the bloody Battle of Shiloh (6-7 April), helping to force the Confederates off the field. Though he was constantly exposed to enemy fire throughout the battle, he emerged unwounded.
In the summer of 1862, Garfield contracted jaundice and returned home to recuperate. While he was back in Ohio, his Republican friends convinced him to run for Congress in the upcoming midterm elections. He did and, in October, won the election to represent Ohio's 19th District in the US House of Representatives. After this victory, Garfield returned to the field, serving as chief of staff to Major General William S. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Grant in command of the Army of the Cumberland in Tennessee.
Rosecrans was greatly impressed with Garfield, whom he considered the best-read person in the army. The two men talked on topics ranging from theology to philosophy well into the night. Garfield advised Rosecrans during his rapid Tullahoma Campaign, which drove the Confederates out of Tennessee. He was also present for the disastrous Battle of Chickamauga (19-20 September 1863). Though the battle resulted in a Union defeat, Garfield distinguished himself in the fighting and won promotion to major general, becoming the youngest man to hold that rank in the Union Army.
Congressional Career
In December 1863, Garfield resigned from the army in order to take his seat in the 38th Congress, which was then convening in Washington, D.C. His experience in the war had only strengthened his abolitionist convictions, and when he entered Congress, he allied himself with the radical wing of the Republican Party, which advocated for a total end to slavery. He often found himself frustrated with the current administration, believing that President Abraham Lincoln was not being firm enough in his stance against slavery; indeed, while Garfield supported the Emancipation Proclamation, he was shocked at the "strange phenomenon in the world's history, when a second-rate Illinois lawyer is the instrument to utter words which shall form an epoch memorable in all future ages" (quoted in Goodwin, 501)
In the US presidential election of 1864, Garfield begrudgingly supported Lincoln's re-election. He more wholeheartedly supported the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in January 1865, which ended slavery nationwide, and spoke in favor of full suffrage for African Americans. After the end of the Civil War – and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln – in April 1865, Garfield tentatively supported the lenient Reconstruction policies proposed by the new president, Andrew Johnson. However, by 1866, it had become clear that Johnson did not care much for the enfranchisement of the former slaves, and that his policies often clashed with the Radical Republican agenda; after Johnson had vetoed the extension of the Freedmen's Bureau Bill – which would have provided shelter, supplies, and education to freed people – Garfield denounced the president as either "crazy or drunk with opium" (quoted in Peskin, 279).
In January 1868, Garfield voted in favor of the resolution that led to the impeachment of Andrew Johnson. During the lead-up to the impeachment trial, he gave several speeches on the House floor, condemning Johnson's abuse of executive power. He was dismayed and shocked when Johnson was subsequently acquitted. That same year, he supported the candidacy of his old commanding officer, Ulysses S. Grant, who was elected president on 3 November. By this point, Garfield had grown out of his old radicalism – like the nation at large, he believed that it was time to move on. He supported the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited state or federal governments from denying citizens the right to vote. But at the same time, he considered the amendment to mark the end of the fight for Black suffrage, declaring that "the Fifteenth Amendment confers on the African race the care of its own destiny. It places their fortunes in their own hands" (quoted in Foner, 449).
Having moved away from his commitment to civil rights, Garfield instead began to involve himself more in financial issues. In 1870, as chairman of the Banking and Currency Committee, he advocated for hard money policies and opposed the issuance of paper money, or 'greenbacks'. He promoted the interests of wealthy Gilded Age businessmen by opposing labor unions and advocating for the use of federal troops to break up strikes. He also supported a high protective tariff. In 1872, he was involved in the Crédit Mobilier scandal – he and several other congressmen were accused of accepting bribes in exchange for weakening congressional oversight over Crédit Mobilier, a railroad construction company. This scandal – as well as a vote to retroactively raise his own salary in the midst of a major economic depression – significantly reduced Garfield's popularity, and he struggled to win re-election in 1874.
In 1876, Garfield supported the election of fellow Ohioan Rutherford B. Hayes to the presidency. The US presidential election of 1876 ended in a stalemate, as there was controversy surrounding the voting returns of South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida. Garfield was chosen to serve on the Electoral Commission to settle the matter and helped formulate the polarizing Compromise of 1877 between Democrats and Republicans; the Democrats agreed to accept Hayes's election and, in return, Republicans promised to remove the last federal troops from the ex-Confederate states, effectively ending Reconstruction.
Although this crisis was averted, the Republican Party remained in turmoil. They had lost control of Congress and had fractured into two vying factions – the 'Stalwarts,' led by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, wanted to keep the existing federal government patronage system, while the 'Half-Breeds,' led by Maine Senator James G. Blaine, supported civil service reform. It was up to Garfield, as the Republican minority leader in the House, to mitigate disputes between these two factions and to find compromise. He proved adept at this role, navigating inter-party disputes for the duration of Hayes's presidency.
Election & Presidency
In 1880, as the nation prepared for yet another presidential election, Garfield traveled to the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. He had come to support the candidacy of his friend, Senator John Sherman of Ohio. It was already shaping up to be a tight race for the nomination – the Stalwarts supported former President Grant for a third term, while the Half-Breeds supported Senator Blaine. Up against such fierce opposition, Garfield knew he had to utilize his best oratorical skills to win the necessary support for Sherman. But when Garfield rose to give his speech, his passion and eloquence had an unintended effect – it put him in the spotlight. Thus, when the convention became deadlocked between Grant, Blaine, and Sherman, someone put Garfield's name forth as a compromise 'dark horse' candidate. The idea gained momentum until Garfield won the nomination on the 36th ballot.
Garfield, who had not sought or even wanted the nomination, was shocked, but he nevertheless accepted. To appease the powerful Stalwarts, the Republicans chose Chester A. Arthur – former New York customs inspector and close ally of Conkling – as their vice presidential candidate. Since, at the time, it was considered unseemly for presidential candidates to campaign for themselves, Garfield returned to his home in Ohio, where he entertained journalists and well-wishers from his front porch. Garfield portrayed himself as an average American whose rags-to-riches story followed his path from canal worker to presidential candidate; indeed, one of his campaign slogans was "From the tow path to the White House" (quoted in Encyclopedia Britannica). In November 1880, he won the election, beating the Democratic candidate Winfield Scott Hancock; although Garfield won the popular vote by less than 10,000 votes, he easily won the electoral vote, winning 214 votes to Hancock's 155.
At his inauguration on 4 March 1881, Garfield seemed to have returned to his old ways, advocating for the protection of civil rights for African Americans. "Freedom," he said, "can never yield its fullness of blessings so long as the law or its administration places the smallest obstacle in the pathway of any virtuous citizen" (quoted in Peskin, 540). Yet before Garfield could try and tackle civil rights, he first had to handle the infighting within his party. He had appointed Senator Blaine as his secretary of state and had appointed another Half-Breed, Thomas Lemuel James, as postmaster general. These appointments infuriated Conkling, who demanded that Garfield appoint a Stalwart to an equally prestigious cabinet position. Garfield, who believed Conkling and his Stalwart faction to be corrupt, refused; for the rest of his brief, four-month presidency, Garfield was therefore locked into a feud with Conkling, distracting him from other issues.
Assassination
On 2 July 1881, President Garfield walked into the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station on B Street in Washington, D.C. He was about to go on vacation and was having a last-minute discussion with Secretary of State Blaine. Aside from Blaine and a few other cabinet members, he was alone and unguarded. At the time, it was believed that, as the leader of a free republic, the president should present himself to his fellow citizens and walk amongst them without fear. True, Lincoln had been murdered less than 20 years earlier, but that assassination was seen as an outgrowth of the Civil War rather than something that could happen to a peacetime president. Garfield himself famously brushed off the idea that he should fear an assassin's bullet. "Assassination can no more be guarded against than death by lightning," he wrote, "and it is best not to worry about either."
In this case, Garfield's lack of precautions would prove fatal. As he walked to his train, he was approached from behind by Charles J. Guiteau, a delusional office-seeker who believed that he had been spurned by Garfield, and that the Stalwarts would reward him for assassinating the president. Guiteau fired two shots; the first only grazed Garfield's arm, but the second entered his back and lodged behind his pancreas. As Garfield fell, Guiteau quickly surrendered to police. "I am a stalwart," he said, "[Chester A.] Arthur is now president of the United States" (Encyclopedia Britannica). If Guiteau truly expected to be rewarded by Arthur, he was mistaken; after a trial in which his counsel used the insanity defense, Guiteau was found guilty of murder and was hanged on 30 June 1882.
As for Garfield, he survived the initial attack and was taken back to the White House, where he lingered for months. The wound itself was not necessarily fatal, and the bullet could have conceivably remained lodged in his body without issue. However, his doctors, in their attempt to locate the bullet, poked and prodded at his wound with unsanitary medical tools. They were unable to find it – even Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, tried to locate the bullet with a primitive metal detector, but to no avail.
Due to the unsanitary conditions of both the doctor's medical equipment and the White House itself, Garfield's body became infected. In the 80 excruciating days after he was shot, his condition gradually worsened. On 19 September 1881, death finally came. For the American public, which had been watching and hoping for a recovery, Garfield's death was met with a major outpouring of grief. It seemed to many that the president had been cut down in his prime, with so much wasted potential – even today, historians still wonder what Garfield could have accomplished had he survived.
