Khaybar, Tayma, Dadan, Qurh, and AlUla Old Town are sites situated in the AlUla region of Saudi Arabia, an area on the ancient incense trade routes. Khaybar and Tayma are both multiperiod oasis sites, whilst Dadan was once the capital of the Dadan and Lihyan kingdoms more than 2000 years ago. Qurh was an early Islamic city, and AlUla Old Town dates from the 12th century to the 20th century CE.
Khaybar
The oasis of Khaybar, a place of continuous human occupation from prehistoric periods through to today, has been a source of vibrant culture and fresh spring water for millennia. Renowned for being one of the world's most extensive and rich archaeological landscapes, Greater Khaybar is characterized by tens of thousands of late prehistoric stone structures distributed across lava fields and the ancient oasis.
Whilst the visible monuments predominantly date to the Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages, some evidence suggests that human occupation of the landscape stretches back much further, to at least 300,000 years ago.
Historically, Khaybar is best known for localised residence of Muslim rule in the early 7th century CE, when Islam was emerging. The six forts situated atop basalt hills are associated with that time, although their origins likely preceded this period, and what stands today is much later.
Tayma
Tayma was another significant oasis settlement in north-western Arabia. Its historical importance is also largely attributed to its status as a major stopping point along routes of travel from Southern Arabia to Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean world, intersecting with the Nafud Desert and trade from the east. Notably, Tayma was home to Nabonidus, the last Neo-Babylonian king, who resided there in the mid-6th century BCE.
The earliest reference to Tayma appears as 'Tiamat' in Neo-Babylonian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BCE. Its prosperity is illustrated through its once impressive architecture and many water management features. There is also a massive well, although its date is uncertain.
A landmark discovery in 2010 was a hieroglyphic inscription by Ramesses III (r. 1186-1155 BCE), approximately 60 km northwest of the oasis. The first such inscription discovered in Saudi Arabia, it suggests Tayma's role in an important trade route connecting the Red Sea coast of the Arabian Peninsula with the Nile. Archaeological exploration over the past 20 years in and around the oasis has indicated that Tayma has been continuously inhabited since the Bronze Age.
Dadan
One of the most important discoveries at AlUla was the ancient city of Dadan. Once the capital of the Dadan and Lihyan kingdoms more than 2000 years ago, this breathtaking stone city is home to famous tombs that were neatly and skilfully cut into the red rock cliff faces.
The ancient city of Dadan was established at a key location on the ancient incense trade routes, and the city was occupied from at least the 8th to the 1st century BCE. Dadan's economy was based on trade and agriculture with plentiful water and fertile soil that created a productive oasis in the desert.
Excavations at Dadan have focused on religious structures, revealing impressive architecture and monumental structures. At the centre of the city was a large temple, dedicated to Dhu Ghaybahm, the chief god of the Lihyanite Kingdom. Its scale and construction tell us that religion had a significant role in the kingdom. Inscriptions indicate an active religious life, with worship based around offerings and pilgrimage.
The level of craftsmanship, in both buildings and artefacts, such as incense burners and lamps, suggests the existence of a local stone-carving school. A remarkable feature found at the site is a huge stone basin, carved from a single block of sandstone. Known locally as Mahlab al-Naqah, it could hold around 26 cubic metres of water and is thought to have been used on religious occasions.
Colossal statues have also been found at Dadan that measure up to 2.6 metres, about one and a half times the size of a person. They are thought to represent important individuals such as kings and priests. Statues of a similar style have been found in contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Dadan has hundreds of tombs, the most visible of which are cut into the rock face just south of the site. Excavators think their location probably reflects the social position of those buried. The best-known tombs at Dadan are the two 'lion tombs'. The carved lions are thought to symbolise powerful status or strength, or they could have been carved to protect the tomb's occupants. Some of the tombs may have belonged to members of the Minaean community who lived in Dadan after the 5th century BCE, including one of the ‘lion tombs'.
The prosperity of Dadan was largely dependent on the practice of intensive agriculture and irrigation, and trade in frankincense, myrrh, and spices. The Lihyanites, based in Dadan, played a key role in the movement of these goods. The Minaeans, whose capital was M'in in South Arabia, participated in the control of the caravan trade.
There appears to have been harmony between the Minaean community based at Dadan and the local population, as there are examples of intermarriage recorded in Dadanite inscriptions.
Qurh
The early Islamic city of Qurh lies on the ancient overland routes of travel between southern Arabia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean world. Archaeological evidence suggests that activity at the site dates to at least the 1st century CE, but most of the findings date to the 10th and 11th centuries CE.
With the advent of Islam in 622 CE, the route from Damascus evolved into the Syrian Hajj Route, and Qurh, with its abundant orchards and water supply, flourished as a major stop for pilgrims. Al-Muquddasi, writing in 985 CE, provides a lively account of Qurh. He describes it as the largest city in the Hejaz after Mecca, with a Sunni population where goods from Syria and Iraq were sold in the markets.
Villages encircle it on all sides and palm trees skirt it about; and, besides, it is possessed of very cheap dates and excellent bread and copious springs of water, pretty houses and busy markets. [...] it is a Syrian, an Egyptian, an Iraqian and a Ḥijazite town all in one, but the water is unwholesome and its dates of middling quality.
(Al-Muqadassi, 83-84)
He also mentions a mosque in the main street where there is a bone in the mihrab, said to be the bone that spoke to the Prophet Muhammad.
By c. 1200 CE, the site was abandoned, and the main settlement in the valley moved to what is today called AlUla Old Town.
AlUla Old Town
AlUla Old Town exemplifies the enduring heritage that shapes the region's identity. Dominating the landscape is the reconstructed Musa bin Nusayr Castle, an ancient citadel reported as far back as the 10th century CE. The historic enclave below sustained human settlement from at least the 12th century CE until the late 20th century, and was a pivotal waypoint along the pilgrimage route connecting Damascus and Mecca (Makkah). Its mud-brick buildings, distinct fortifications, and remnants of artistic expression, seen by the hundreds of wall paintings, collectively hold significant historical importance to the local community and beyond. The labyrinth of alleys in the old town has over 900 identified properties, including 400 shops and five central squares or rahbas.
These sites of AlUla, together with Hegra and Jabal Ikmah, are located along the incense trade route and were part of the network that facilitated the trade of spices, silk, and other luxury items through the Kingdom of Axum, Arabia, Egypt, and India. The oasis of AlUla itself was also a key stop on the Hejaz railway, linking Damascus and Medina. This area is so rich in history, and together the sites make up the rich tapestry that is the history of AlUla.
