William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was an English poet, playwright, and actor who flourished during the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras. Known as the 'Bard of Avon,' he wrote 38 plays, 154 sonnets, and three longer narrative poems. His plays, often written in blank verse and composed in iambic pentameter, were incredibly popular in their day and continue to be performed around the world; they include comedies such as A Midsummer Night's Dream and Twelfth Night, tragedies like Hamlet and Macbeth, histories such as Henry V, and tragicomedies like The Tempest. Arguably the most influential dramatist of all time, Shakespeare's legacy has only grown throughout the centuries. In the words of fellow playwright Ben Jonson, Shakespeare was "not of an age, but for all time."
Early Life & Marriage
Little is known for certain about the life of William Shakespeare. As a commoner, his life did not merit the same attention as that of a nobleman or other public figure. Even after his rise to prominence, contemporary audiences were much more interested in his work than his personal life, and no attempt to write his biography was made until decades after his death. As a result, most of his biographical details have been lost to history, leaving behind only a rough outline of the man he might have been. This outline, however, can be colored in with public documents from the era; indeed, the Bard of Avon lives on in the yellowed, bureaucratic pages of tax records, payment transactions, lawsuits, and wills. From these records, scholars have been able to track Shakespeare's activities, allowing them to piece together the story of his life. This information is supplemented by comments made by other playwrights, like Robert Greene (1558-1592) and Ben Jonson (1572-1637), who occasionally alluded to Shakespeare in their works, conversations, and literary critiques. Only with these tiny fragments, as well as a careful scholarly analysis of Shakespeare's works and the time in which he lived, can we hope to get a fuller picture of one of the most influential writers to ever live.
What is beyond dispute is that Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, a "handsome small market town" of about 1,400 residents in Warwickshire, England (quoted in Bevington, xlviii). His father, John Shakespeare (circa 1531-1601), was a successful glover and leatherworker who had moved to Stratford sometime before 1552. His mother, Mary Arden (circa 1537-1608), was the daughter of a wealthy gentleman who had leased land to the Shakespeare family in nearby Snitterfield; having grown up on the Arden property, it is likely that John Shakespeare had known Mary Arden all his life. The match greatly improved John's social status, helping him pursue various public offices in Stratford, including alderman and even bailiff (a position roughly corresponding to mayor). As his prosperity grew, John acquired several houses, including the one on Henley Street that has been traditionally regarded as William's birthplace. The third of eight children born to John and Mary Shakespeare (and the eldest to survive childhood), William Shakespeare was baptized in Stratford on 26 April 1564; though his exact birthdate was unrecorded, it has been traditionally celebrated on 23 April.
Most scholars agree that Shakespeare received a grammar school education, likely at King's New School at Stratford, in which he would have enrolled around 1571 at the age of 7. In this one-room schoolhouse, Shakespeare would have undergone a rigorous curriculum centering around Latin studies; the standard text was Grammatica Latina by William Lyly (grandfather of the poet John Lyly), but Shakespeare would have also read from Aesop's Fables and studied the works of ancient Roman literature, such as poems by Plautus and Ovid, each of whom would greatly influence his own plays. In 1577, Shakespeare's family fell on hard times for reasons that are still unknown – John Shakespeare stopped showing up to town council meetings, mortgaged his wife's property, and became involved in a lawsuit over his unlicensed dealings in wool. Amidst these financial difficulties (though not necessarily because of them), Shakespeare stayed in Stratford and never went to university. Instead, he got married. A bishop's license issued on 27 November 1582 records a marriage between William Shakespeare and Anne 'Whately'. This was a misprint, however, as the bond of sureties issued the next day corrected her name to Anne Hathaway.
Throughout the centuries, Shakespeare's marriage has been the topic of much speculation. There was a significant age difference between the couple – Anne was 26 and William only 18 – leading some scholars to believe that Shakespeare was forced into marriage by the Hathaway family after accidentally getting her pregnant. While this seems to be supported by the fact that Anne gave birth only six months after their marriage, there is no evidence that Shakespeare was strong-armed into what would today be called a 'shotgun wedding'. On the contrary, some scholars argue Shakespeare had pursued her; at a time when his family was still suffering financially, a match with the well-off Hathaway family would have improved his standing. In any case, the couple welcomed their first child, Susanna, on 26 May 1583. Two more Shakespeare children, twins Hamnet and Judith, were baptized in Stratford on 2 February 1585.
Lost Years & Re-emergence in London
After the baptisms of his twins in 1585, Shakespeare falls completely off the record and does not re-emerge until 1592, when he is first referenced as an up-and-coming actor and playwright in London. His life and activities in the intervening seven years – when he would have been between the ages of 21 and 28 – are completely unknown. Naturally, Shaespeare's whereabouts during these 'lost years' have been widely discussed and have given rise to several theories, some of which bleed into the territory of myth. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare's first biographer, asserts that he was forced to leave Stratford after a local magistrate caught him poaching deer. Another tradition suggests that he left Stratford to become a country schoolmaster, which would explain why he comes off as so well-educated in his works. Still other theories contend that he was a soldier in the Low Countries, or that he was apprenticed to a butcher in Stratford; 17th-century writer John Aubrey supports the latter theory, offering an anecdote that "when [Shakespeare] killed a calf, he would do it in high style, and make a speech" (quoted in Bevington, liii).
The only certainty about Shakespeare's 'lost years' is that at some point he settled in London and became involved in the theatrical world. Perhaps he joined a touring company of players as it made its way through Stratford and then on to London, or perhaps he went to the capital with the intention of forging a career in theatre. In the 18th century, scholar Edmond Malone made the unsupported claim that Shakespeare's "first office in theatre was that of a prompter's attendant" (ibid). Whether or not this was true, scholar David Bevington agrees that "a young man from the country would have to begin at the bottom" of the theatre hierarchy, adding that "Shakespeare's later work certainly reveals an intimate and practical acquaintance with technical matters of stagecraft" (ibid). However his initial involvement began, Shakespeare rapidly gained prominence both as an actor and playwright and had certainly written his first plays by the early 1590s. By 1592, he had become prominent enough to warrant the attention of the noted dramatist Robert Greene. In his posthumously published work, Greene's Groatsworth of Wit, the dying Greene mockingly refers to Shakespeare:
For there is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, with his 'Tiger's heart wrapped in a player's hide' supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you, and, being an absolute Johannes Factotum [i.e., 'Jack-of-all-trades'] is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.
In this sarcasm-ridden attack, in which he essentially accuses the younger dramatist of being a hack, Greene directly references Shakespeare. The line "tiger's heart wrapped in a player's hide" is modeled after a line from 3 Henry VI: "O tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" (1.4.137). This meant that not only had Shakespeare become prominent enough in the theatrical world to attract Greene's attention, but that his plays were already well-known enough to be referenced in such a way.
Early Works
By the time he strolled back into the pages of history as the target of Greene's jealousy, Shakespeare had already written the earliest of his plays. It is believed that the three parts of Henry VI, The Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, and perhaps even Titus Andronicus were written sometime between 1588 and the closure of London's theatres due to plague in 1592. In these early years, the young Shakespeare was likely influenced by the works of playwrights Thomas Kyd (1558-1594) and Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), whose plays were taking London theatres by storm. Their influence can clearly be seen in Shakespeare's works. Kyd had popularized the 'revenge tragedy' genre that Shakespeare would emulate in Titus Andronicus and master in Hamlet, while Marlowe had written his works in blank verse – non-rhyming poetic meter often composed in iambic pentameter – a style that would become most associated with Shakespeare. Some scholars believe that Shakespeare and Marlowe knew one another personally and that they may have collaborated, or at least shown each other their manuscripts. In his early work, Shakespeare likely collaborated with other playwrights; it is generally accepted that George Peele (1556-1596) co-wrote Titus Andronicus and that another writer had a hand in writing the Henry VI plays, with Marlowe or Thomas Nashe (1567-1601) often put forward as candidates.
In 1592, an outbreak of plague swept through London, forcing the theatres to shut down. Finding himself out of work, Shakespeare turned to writing narrative poetry, hoping to win the patronage of a wealthy aristocrat. In 1593, he published Venus and Adonis, a 1,194-line dramatic poem written in iambic pentameter. The poem was dedicated to the 18-year-old nobleman Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton (1573-1624), who rewarded Shakespeare with his patronage. Shakespeare's second narrative poem, The Rape of Lucrece, was also dedicated to Southampton. By the time the theatres reopened in June 1594, Shakespeare was part-owner of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, an acting company centered around the Burbage family of entertainers. James Burbage was the owner of the Theatre northeast of London while his son, Richard, was the principal actor of the Chamberlain's Men. Richard Burbage would go on to perform most of the leading roles in Shakespeare's plays, turning him into the leading tragedian of his day. Will Kemp was another prominent actor in the Chamberlain's Men, who specialized in comic roles. Before leaving the company in 1599, Kemp played many of the clowns in Shakespeare's plays and originated the iconic role of Sir John Falstaff.
Mid-Career & Globe Theatre
In the years that followed the reopening of the theatres, Shakespeare continued to perfect his craft, writing several new plays for the Lord Chamberlain's Men, including The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Love Labour's Lost, Romeo and Juliet, The Tragedy of Richard III, and A Midsummer Night's Dream. As was customary for the time, most of these stories were not the original creations of Shakespeare but, rather, adaptations from existing source material. Romeo and Juliet, for example, was sourced from a poem by Arthur Brooke and took inspiration from Ovid's Metamorphosis, while the history plays, like Richard III, were primarily drawn from texts such as Holinshed's Chronicles. Shakespeare's character work and use of language, however, transformed these familiar stories into new and original experiences, captivating his audiences. By 1597, his fame was rapidly increasing – he had successfully applied for a coat of arms for his family, had purchased the second largest house in Stratford, and had begun to perform before the court of Queen Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603).
As Shakespeare continued to live and work in London, Anne Hathaway remained in Stratford with the children. According to John Aubrey, Shakespeare would visit them at least once a year. In 1596, his 11-year-old son Hamnet died. Scholars have long tried to surmise whether Hamnet's death had any impact on Shakespeare's work, a question that continues to be debated. Despite this tragedy, Shakespeare continued to write, penning King John, The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and the two parts of Henry IV between 1596 and 98. Then, in 1599, he had one of the most creatively productive years of his career – he wrote such classics as Henry V, Julius Caesar, As You Like It, Twelfth Night, and probably started to work on Hamlet. First performed in either 1600 or 1601, Hamlet is regarded as the first of Shakespeare's 'great tragedies' and is cited by many as one of the greatest pieces of English literature. This burst of creative energy may have been spurred on by the construction of the Globe Theatre on the south bank of the Thames. Financed by Shakespeare, the Burbages, and other members of the Chamberlain's Men, the Globe became one of the most popular playhouses in London from its opening in 1599 until its destruction in a fire in 1613.
Problem Plays & Sonnets
In 1603, King James I of England (r. 1603-1625) ascended the throne and became the new patron of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, who were thereafter referred to as the King's Men. The principal members of the troupe, including Shakespeare, were elevated to the honorary rank of Grooms of the Royal Chamber and took part in the king's coronation ceremony dressed in royal livery. During the early Jacobean Era, the characteristics of Shakespeare's plays began to shift – he wrote fewer comedies and instead focused on writing plays that combined both comedic and darker elements. Eschewing traditional genres, these were Shakespeare's 'problem plays' and included Measure for Measure, All's Well That Ends Well, and Troilus and Cressida. Around the same time, Shakespeare wrote the other so-called 'great tragedies' in another burst of creative energy; Othello, Macbeth, King Lear, and Antony and Cleopatra were all written between 1604 and 1607.
In 1609, 154 of Shakespeare's sonnets were published in a quarto by Thomas Thorpe. He had likely been working on these sonnets on and off for decades and may have only intended them for private readership amongst his friends, as Thorpe had a reputation for publishing works that did not belong to him. Regardless, they have become some of the most popular and widely read of Shakespeare's works. Dealing with themes such as time, lust, and homoeroticism, the sonnets are generally divided into three sections. The first 126 are addressed to a nameless 'Fair Youth', a beautiful yet self-centered young man who is viewed by the narrator in a friendly, admiring, and at times, homoerotic way. Sonnets 127-152 are addressed to a 'Dark Lady' and consist of a more overtly erotic tone. The last two sonnets, in the words of scholar Catherine Bates, involve "racy mythological fables about Cupid" (Kinney, 426). Scholars have long debated whether the sonnets hold any insight into Shakespeare's life, particularly regarding his sexuality – efforts to identify the 'Fair Youth' and 'Dark Lady' with figures from Shakespeare's life have yielded several candidates, but with no conclusive evidence. The mysterious 'Mr. W. H.' to whom the sonnets are addressed has also been the subject of much speculation.
Final Years & Death
By 1610, Shakespeare had begun to slow down. He had probably given up acting by this point – his name no longer appears as an actor on playbills after 1608 – and was now writing plays at a reduced rate. Those he did write were often composed in collaboration with other playwrights. Shakespeare worked with Thomas Middleton (1580-1627) on Timon of Athens and with John Fletcher (1579-1629) on Henry VIII, The Two Noble Kinsmen, and the now lost Cardenio. Whether Shakespeare was forced to collaborate because he was ailing and needed help or he was planning to retire and wanted to train a successor is still questioned; however, it is worth noting that Fletcher succeeded Shakespeare as the principal playwright for the King's Men after his retirement. In 1611, Shakespeare wrote the tragicomedy The Tempest, the last play he would write on his own. In 1613, he and Fletcher wrote The Two Noble Kinsmen, which was Shakespeare's last play before leaving London for Stratford-upon-Avon and his retirement. Only months later, the Globe Theatre would burn down after catching fire during a performance of Henry VIII.
On 25 March 1616, Shakespeare signed his last will and testament – as scholar David Bevington points out, his "three quavering signatures, one on each page of this document, suggest that he was in failing health" (lxxi). Part of the reason why Shakespeare amended his will was to account for his younger daughter, Judith, and her new husband, Thomas Quiney. But only a day later, it was revealed that Quiney had fathered an illegitimate child with another woman; a church court ordered Quiney to do public penance, which would have been a great embarrassment to Shakespeare's family. In his will, he left most of his estate to his eldest daughter, Susanna, while his wife, Anne, was left only "my second best bed"; this odd bequest has puzzled scholars for centuries and only added to the mystery surrounding their marriage. Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 at the age of 52. He left behind a legacy as one of the greatest writers of all time, whose work significantly impacted the development of English literature. Today, his plays are performed more often than those of any other playwright, and his sonnets are still widely read, confirming the power and timelessness of his works.
