Albert Sidney Johnston (1803-1862) was the commander of the Confederate western armies in the early months of the American Civil War (1861-1865). Over the course of his 34-year military career, Johnston served in the armies of three republics – the Republic of Texas, the United States, and the Confederate States – and, in 1861, was granted the rank of full general by his friend, Confederate President Jefferson Davis (1808-1889), who considered him the greatest soldier in the country. Johnston was killed at the Battle of Shiloh (6-7 April 1862), earning him the distinction of being the highest-ranking soldier to be killed on either side during the war.
Early Life & Career
Johnston was born on 2 February 1803 in the small frontier town of Washington, Kentucky. His father, Dr. John Johnston, was a New Englander who had migrated to Kentucky in 1788, driven by the great American desire to go west. As one of the only trained physicians on that frontier, Dr. Johnston soon established a large and successful medical practice. His first wife died only a year after coming to Kentucky, but the doctor did not wait long before remarrying to Abigail Harris, a young woman whose family had also moved to the frontier from New England (it is somewhat ironic, then, that one of the Confederacy's most admired generals was descended from New England Yankees on both sides of his family). Albert Sidney, the couple's fifth child, was only three when his mother died; raised by his older sisters and stepmother, the boy was said to have been a 'healthy and cheerful' child who inherited the 'frank and manly demeanor' of his father (Roland, 9).
In 1818, the 15-year-old Johnston enrolled in Transylvania University in nearby Lexington, Kentucky, where he hoped to follow in his father's footsteps by studying medicine. He was a popular and diligent student who excelled in his studies, particularly in mathematics. However, by 1822, Johnston realized that a medical career was not right for him, and he decided to seek a military career instead. He was admitted into the prestigious United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where he quickly impressed both his instructors and fellow cadets with his charming, gentlemanly personality; "his nature was truly noble," one classmate wrote, "untouched by anything small or contracted" (quoted in Roland, 17). He was quick to make friends, including future Confederate leaders Jefferson Davis and Leonidas Polk (1806-1864); he was also cordial with Robert E. Lee (1807-1870), two classes below him, although the two were not close. Alongside his popularity, Johnston was also a model cadet. In 1826, he graduated eighth in his class of 41.
Breveted a second lieutenant in the US Army, he was first stationed at Sackets Harbor on Lake Ontario, a quiet posting that left him little to do other than attend drills and read his books. He was then transferred to Missouri, where, in August 1827, he was sent on an expedition to hunt down a group of Winnebago Native Americans suspected of murdering White settlers. After travelling up the Wisconsin River, Lieutenant Johnston and the other US soldiers met with a council of Winnebago leaders, who agreed to hand over the individuals responsible for the murders to avoid reprisals by the US. One of the Winnebago prisoners, a man named Red Bird, made a strong impression on Johnston in the way he conducted himself after his captivity. Johnston wrote: "I must confess that I consider Red Bird one of the noblest and most dignified men I ever saw. When he gave himself up…he said, 'I have offended. I sacrifice myself to save my country'" (quoted in Roland, 23).
While attending a ball in St. Louis, Missouri, Johnston was introduced to Henrietta Preston, a striking young woman of "poise and dignity" (Roland, 28). They were married on 20 January 1829, and Johnston spent many of the following months on leave in Louisville, Kentucky, with his wife's family, where he passed the time "pleasantly and quietly in the country, reading, shooting the rifle, etc." (ibid). After the birth of their first son in January 1831, Johnston returned to active duty. The next year, the US northwestern frontier was invaded by Native Americans under the Sauk leader Black Hawk (circa 1767-1838), sparking the Black Hawk War (April – August 1832). During that brief conflict, Johnston served as chief-of-staff to Brevet Brigadier General Henry Atkinson, who commended him for his "talents of the first order, a gallant soldier by profession and education, and a gentleman of high standing and integrity" (quoted in Roland, 243).
Texian Service
In 1834, Johnston resigned from the US Army to care for Henrietta, who had contracted tuberculosis. She never recovered and died two years later. Distraught, Johnston was still in Louisville, wondering what to do next, when Stephen F. Austin (1793-1836) came to town as a commissioner from the newly independent Republic of Texas. The Battle of the Alamo (23 February to 6 March 1836) had just been fought, and Austin was traveling the US in search of volunteers to aid the Texas Revolution in its struggle against Mexico. Austin found much support in Louisville, writing, "Every thing is cheering in this part of the world for Texas. The hearts of the people are with us" (quoted in Roland, 53). Johnston found such a call to adventure irresistible; he travelled by steamer to New Orleans and from there, set out on horseback for Texas. He arrived in Nacogdoches on 15 July 1836. Though he was too late to fight in the Revolution – Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna had signed a peace treaty after his capture in April – Johnston nevertheless enlisted in the Texian army as a private.
On 31 January 1837, Johnston was promoted to senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. This brought him into conflict with other military officers, who had been in Texas longer and believed that they deserved the promotion. One of these officers, Felix Huston, was angry enough to challenge Johnston to a duel. Though Johnston had "little respect for the practice of dueling", he nevertheless felt honor-bound to accept. They dueled on 5 February 1837, and Johnston was shot through the right hip – though the wound was not fatal, it was serious enough to immobilize him for weeks, rendering him incapable of carrying out his military duties. Huston was instantly filled with regret and promised to support Johnston as commanding general upon his recovery. On 22 December 1838, Johnston became Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas, and the next year campaigned against the Cherokee. By now, Johnston considered Texas his home and would view himself as a Texian for the rest of his life.
Return to the US Army
In 1840, after finishing his service as Secretary of War, Johnston resigned from the Texian Army and returned to Kentucky, where, in 1843, he married his late wife's first cousin, Eliza Griffin. Together, they raised the two children from Johnston's first marriage and would have four children of their own. In December 1845, Johnston's beloved Texas was admitted to the Union as the 28th state; since Mexico had not recognized Texas' independence, this was viewed as a hostile act and led to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). As soon as he learned of the outbreak of hostilities, Johnston travelled about 400 miles (650 km) on horseback to volunteer for service in the army of US Brigadier General Zachary Taylor (1784-1850). He was elected colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers before Taylor appointed him inspector-general of Brigadier General William O. Butler's volunteer division. At the Battle of Monterrey (21-24 September 1846), Butler was wounded, and Johnston temporarily took command of his division. Future Union general Joseph Hooker, who served under Johnston at Monterrey, would later recall that it was due to Johnston's coolheaded leadership that "our division was saved from a cruel slaughter…[Johnston] left an impression on my mind that I have never forgotten" (quoted in Roland, 243).
The hard-fought Battle of Monterrey resulted in a US victory; shortly thereafter, Johnston resigned from the army, having promised Eliza that he would only serve for six months. He returned to his Texas plantation of China Grove, where he spent the next few years with Eliza and their children. But Johnston could not long resist the allure of military life and, in December 1849, accepted a commission as major in the US Army. In 1855, he was appointed colonel of the newly formed 2nd US Cavalry, where he was reunited with Robert E. Lee, who served as Johnston's lieutenant colonel. By the mid-1850s, trouble was brewing out West – having faced persecution throughout the US, the Mormon settlers of the Utah Territory were arming themselves and preparing to resist the authority of the US government. Escalating tensions resulted in bloodshed when the Mormon militia slaughtered 120 California-bound settlers in the Mountain Meadows Massacre (11 September 1857); after this incident, Johnston was put in command of an army and ordered to crush Mormon resistance. He took command in November 1857 and, after a nearly bloodless campaign, entered Salt Lake City in June 1858, bringing an end to the brief Utah War (1857-1858). For this service, Johnston was promoted to brevet brigadier general and, in 1860, was sent to California to take command of the Department of the Pacific.
Confederate General
Johnston was in San Francisco when he learned that Texas had seceded from the Union in January 1861. The question of slavery – which had long been at the center of bitter sectional disputes between the free states of the North and the slave states of the South – had finally torn the nation apart, with eleven Southern states ultimately seceding to form the Confederate States of America. Johnston had not been in favor of secession, but, like many other Southerners, he prized his loyalty to his home state over his loyalty to the Union. He also believed in the South's right to uphold the institution of slavery; Johnston was a slaveholder himself, keeping four slaves on his China Grove plantation, and viewed Northern abolitionists as "fanatical, idolatrous Negro-worshippers" who sought to "cripple and destroy" the South (quoted in Roland, 183). For these reasons, Johnston resigned from the US Army in April 1861 and began a long and arduous overland trek to the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia.
Johnston's transcontinental journey was full of perils, as he and his companions often had to dodge bands of Apache warriors and mounted Union patrols. But once they reached the borders of the new Confederacy, they were greeted as heroes; in every Southern town he travelled through, Johnston was greeted with "fluttering handkerchiefs and tossed hats" (Foote, 169). Indeed, many Southerners shared the opinion of Johnston's old friend, Confederate President Jefferson Davis, who said that Johnston was "the greatest soldier, the ablest man, civil or military, Confederate of Federal" (ibid). When he arrived in Richmond, Johnston was instantly granted the rank of full general – making him the second highest-ranking man in the Confederate Army – and given command of Department No. 2, which meant that he was responsible for the defense of all Confederate territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.
This was no small task – at the onset of his command, Johnston had less than 20,000 men with which to defend the Confederate heartland. Though he was permitted to call upon the governors of Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi for more troops, these states were slow to respond, preferring to keep their men close to home. The recruits they did send were mostly untrained and ill-equipped, some of them lacking any weapons at all. In fact, Johnston's entire force was dangerously undersupplied; the Confederate government prioritized the Eastern front and sent most available troops, arms, and ammunition to Virginia. By the end of 1861, Johnston had managed to scrape together 50,000 men, though he was still outnumbered by the nearly 90,000 Union soldiers gathering in Kentucky. To forestall an invasion, he decided to make use of psychological warfare. He drafted statements to Southern newspapers in which he overstated the size of his army, tripling the numbers he really had. Then, he maneuvered his troops in such a way as to give the appearance that they were gearing up for an invasion of Union-controlled Kentucky. The trick succeeded in unnerving several Union officers, including Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891), who reported, "I am convinced from many facts that A. Sidney Johnston is making herculean efforts to strike a great blow in Kentucky" (quoted in Foote, 175).
Loss of Forts Henry & Donelson
Thus, Johnston was able to create an illusion of strength, one that was all too quickly shattered. In January 1862, Brigadier General Felix Zollicoffer, one of Johnston's subordinates, took it upon himself to move his forces across the Cumberland River and into Kentucky. In the subsequent Battle of Mill Springs (19 January 1862), the Confederates were defeated, and Zollicoffer was killed. Shortly thereafter, the important Confederate bastion of Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was captured by two Union divisions under Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), with the support of a gunboat flotilla. After learning about the Battle of Fort Henry (6 February 1862), Johnston decided to pull back and concentrate the bulk of his forces near Nashville, Tennessee. At the same time, he dispatched 12,000 additional troops to defend Fort Donelson, a vital stronghold on the Cumberland River. Should Fort Donelson fall, the entirety of mid-Tennessee, including Nashville, would be vulnerable to Union invasion. But Johnston knew he could not risk losing any more men than necessary and ordered the fort's commanders, Gideon J. Pillow and John Floyd, to abandon the fort if it could not be held.
In the meantime, Grant had marched his army overland and began to slowly surround Fort Donelson on 11 February. The Battle of Fort Donelson (11-16 February 1862) was long and hard-fought, but ultimately ended in a drastic Confederate defeat, as Pillow and Floyd had not evacuated the garrison in time. Consequently, 18,000 desperately needed Confederate soldiers were taken prisoner, and for Grant, the road to Nashville was now wide open. Outnumbered, Johnston reluctantly decided to abandon Nashville and pulled his army back to Corinth, Mississippi – for this, he was reviled in Southern newspapers, accused of giving Tennessee up without a fight. Johnston spent the next month building up his force, dubbed the Army of Mississippi; by 29 March, he had gathered some 44,000 men and was ready to launch his counterattack. There were two Union armies operating along the Tennessee-Kentucky frontier; Grant's force, which was at Pittsburg Landing, and a force under Brigadier General Don Carlos Buell (1818-1898), which was marching to reinforce Grant. Johnston knew he had to destroy Grant's force before the two armies could link up – but even if they did, he was determined to fight, stating, "I would fight them if they were a million" (quoted in McPherson, 407). And so, on 3 April 1862, Johnston led the Army of Mississippi back into Tennessee and prepared to assault Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing.
Shiloh & Death
On the afternoon of 5 April, Johnston addressed his troops, promising to lead them to "a decisive victory over agrarian mercenaries, sent to subjugate and despoil you of your liberties, property, and honor…remember the dependence of your mothers, your wives, your sisters, on the result" (ibid). The next day, he threw the dice and launched his attack, beginning the bloody Battle of Shiloh. At first, Grant's men were taken by surprise and were thrown back; Johnston personally commanded the rebel right flank, riding back and forth to encourage his tired troops. At one point in the battle, Johnston saw a Confederate lieutenant run out of an abandoned Union tent with his arms full of stolen loot. Johnston sternly rebuked the man: "None of that, sir. We are not here for plunder" (quoted in Foote, 338). Then, noticing that he had hurt the young officer's pride, Johnston bent over and took a tin cup off a table. "Let this be my share of the spoils today," he announced, proceeding to use the cup instead of his sword to direct his troops.
Johnston continued to command his men from the thick of the battle until midafternoon, when a bullet struck his right knee and severed his popliteal artery. Governor Isham Harris of Tennessee, acting as Johnston's aide-de-camp, noticed the general reel in his saddle and asked him if he was hurt. "Yes," Johnston replied, "and I fear seriously". There were no physicians around – Johnston had sent his personal surgeon off to tend to wounded troops – and so, Harris and the other staff officers removed the general to the safety of a small ravine, where they were shocked to find that his right boot was already filled with blood. None of the staff officers knew anything about tourniquets, and they were left to look helplessly on as the general bled to death. Within minutes, Albert Sidney Johnston, the greatest soldier of the Confederacy, was dead at the age of 59. His second-in-command, Brigadier General P. G. T. Beauregard (1818-1893), assumed control of the army, but the arrival of Buell's reinforcements swung the battle in favor of the North, and Beauregard was forced to retreat the next day. Johnston's death was lamented throughout the South, with many considering his loss a devastating blow to the Confederate cause.
