Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was the founder of fascism and dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943. He led the country into a highly authoritarian regime and then dragged it into the Second World War (1939-45) on the side of Nazi Germany. Mussolini was captured and shot by Italian partisans in April 1945.
Fascism is a complex ideology to define. Fascism's main characteristics include a cult of the leader, opposition to parliamentary democracy, the exaltation of violence and militarism, the supremacy of the state over individuals, and totalitarian and imperialistic ambitions. Mussolini was the first to establish a fully-fledged fascist regime and became a model for other movements in Europe, thus contributing to the spread of totalitarianism across the continent between the two world wars.
From Socialism to Fascism
Benito Mussolini was born on 29 July 1883 in a rural town, Dovia di Predappio, in the region of Emilia-Romagna. His father, Alessandro, was a socialist blacksmith, and his mother Rosa was a devout Catholic school teacher. From childhood, Benito was exposed to radical, republican, and anticlerical ideas, which profoundly influenced him. After graduating as an elementary school teacher, he worked briefly in Switzerland between 1902 and 1904, where he joined local socialist circles and became acquainted with the international Marxist organization. Arrested several times for his political activities, he returned to Italy after an amnesty (1904), where he resumed teaching and began his political career within the Italian Socialist Party (PSI).
Over the years, Mussolini gained prominence as a journalist and revolutionary theorist. The oratorical skills he developed as a journalist would later be useful, together with his theatricality, in his speeches as Duce with which he managed to woo the masses. Thanks to his rhetorical prowess and aggressive editorial stance, in 1912 he was appointed editor of the socialist newspaper Avanti!, the official voice of the PSI. From this position, Mussolini became one of the party's most radical voices. However, at the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, he suddenly changed his stance: although the PSI was neutralist, Mussolini declared himself in favour of Italy's intervention in the conflict, believing it to be a historic opportunity to regenerate the country and spark a social revolution. This change of direction led to a split with the party, from which he was expelled in November 1914. In the same month, Mussolini founded a new newspaper, Il Popolo d'Italia, this time supported and funded by industrialists, through which he propagated nationalist and interventionist ideas.
When in 1915 Italy entered WWI, Mussolini volunteered and was wounded in an explosion in 1917. At the end of the conflict in 1918, Italy found itself in a dramatic situation of inflation, unemployment, labour unrest, and widespread dissatisfaction with the so-called "mutilated victory", according to which Italy, despite being victorious, had been betrayed by the Allies and had not obtained what it had been promised, particularly the territories of Fiume and Dalmatia. In this unstable and violent climate, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan in 1919, a movement that united former combatants, nationalists, revolutionary trade unionists, and anti-communists. The movement exploited the discontent of the middle classes, the fear of communism, and the support of the landowners.
In 1919, the fascists failed to win any seats in the national elections. However, starting in 1920, they began to expand rapidly, thanks in part to the systematic use of political violence. In this first phase Mussolini benefitted from the action of the squadristi, paramilitary groups which attacked unions, socialist cooperatives, and opposition newspapers, often with the tacit complicity of local authorities. In 1921, Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party (PNF), and he was elected to parliament that same year. The party espoused a strongly nationalist, authoritarian, and anti-communist rhetoric, and presented itself as a bulwark against social chaos and parliamentary paralysis.
The March on Rome & the Regime
The political crisis of the period pushed Mussolini to take a decisive step on 28 October 1922. Approximately 25,000 "blackshirts" (fascists wore these as their distinctive uniform) organised a paramilitary march directed to Rome, a move more demonstrative than military, but sufficient to intimidate the government. Nevertheless, Mussolini did not march alongside his blackshirts, as he preferred to wait and see the outcome of the march from a safe distance. King Victor Emmanuel III (1869–1947), fearing civil unrest, refused to declare a state of siege and, on 30 October 1922, appointed Mussolini Prime Minister. This marked the beginning of the fascist regime.
In the early years, Mussolini led a coalition government, but after the assassination of Socialist MP Giacomo Matteotti (June 10, 1924) – who had denounced Fascist electoral fraud – a critical phase arose. The opposition attempted to protest by withdrawing from Parliament (the “Aventine secession”), but this proved ineffective. Mussolini took advantage of the situation and, between 1925 and 1926, he passed the so-called Leggi Fascistissime, a series of laws establishing a dictatorial regime. All non-fascist political organizations were dissolved, freedom of the press was abolished, the Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State was established, and a secret police force charged with monitoring and repressing opponents, the OVRA (Organization for the Surveillance and Repression of Anti-Fascism), was created. Full powers were granted to the head of government, known as "Duce", and as the Duce, Mussolini directly assumed numerous roles: not only was he head of government, but also minister of Foreign Affairs, the Interior, War, Navy, and Aviation. This concentration of personal power became the cornerstone of the new political system, in which the National Fascist Party was the sole instrument of public participation, transformed from a militia party into the institutional pillar of the regime.
By 1929, Mussolini was firmly in power, with near-absolute control over Parliament, the press, the police, and the state apparatus. After systematically eliminating all political opposition between 1925 and 1926, the Duce focused on a process of "fascistization" of society, that aimed at the transformation of Italy into a totalitarian state in which the regime permeated every sector, from institutions to education, from culture to daily life. One of the main institutions used for this purpose was the PNF, transformed from a political movement into a true body of social control. The PNF organized conferences and training courses, and had its own youth organizations, such as the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) for children. These organizations were tasked with educating new generations in fascist values: discipline, loyalty to the Duce, nationalism, and military spirit, to be forged also thanks to a new impetus in physical education.
As further proof of the dictatorial drift, in 1931 Mussolini established the Chamber of Fasci and Corporations, replacing the previous Chamber of Deputies. This new parliamentary body was no longer elective but composed of representatives of economic corporations and social groups controlled by the regime. Parliamentary democracy was now effectively abolished, and the Fascist state adopted a corporatist system in which political representation was subordinated to the interests of the State and the Party.
Economy & Culture in Fascist Italy
From an economic perspective, Mussolini's regime promoted the so-called "corporatism", a model inspired by a third way between liberal capitalism and socialism. The idea was to bring together workers, entrepreneurs, and the state in sectoral corporations, with the stated goal of overcoming class conflicts and creating a harmonious, state-controlled economic system. The corporations were assemblies of representatives of the various productive categories (farmers, industrialists, workers, merchants) who were responsible for drafting collective agreements and resolving disputes, always under the aegis of the fascist government.
Despite its intentions, the corporatist economy often proved ineffective and authoritarian. The Duce’s economic plans often favoured the interests of industrialists and the state, while workers' rights were severely restricted. Independent unions were abolished and replaced by regime-controlled bodies, which prevented any form of strike or protest. Significantly, the early 1930s were marked by the Great Depression, the global economic crisis that began with the Wall Street Crash of October 1929. Italy, like many other nations, suffered a severe economic recession: declining industrial production, rising unemployment, and reduced exports. Mussolini and his government responded with a series of highly dirigiste economic interventions, aimed at stabilizing the currency, supporting strategic businesses, and protecting employment. However, the autarky that the regime carried forward often resulted in inefficiencies and waste. The quality of Italian products deteriorated, prices rose, and the population's standard of living did not significantly improve. The Italian economy remained weak and uncompetitive compared to the major European powers.
Meanwhile, one of the most powerful tools at Mussolini's disposal was propaganda. The fascist regime invested enormous resources in controlling information, creating myths, and using symbols to legitimize the Duce's power. The Ministry of Popular Culture (MinCulPop), established in 1937, controlled the press, radio, cinema, and theatre, ensuring that all content conformed to the regime's policies. Radio became a key medium for disseminating Mussolini's speeches and fascist rhetoric, reaching even the most remote areas of the country. The cult of personality around Mussolini developed through images, posters, films, and public ceremonies. The Duce was portrayed as a strong man, the saviour of the country, and the "first worker of Italy." Fascist rhetoric extolled discipline, courage, and sacrifice, constructing an ideal model of the Italian citizen.
From a cultural perspective, Fascism sought to forge a new Italian identity. Celebrations of ancient Roman culture and the Roman Empire were favoured as symbols of Italian greatness to be rediscovered and renewed. Monuments, schools, and institutions were dedicated to this historical narrative. Sport also became an element of propaganda, used to promote values of strength, discipline, and national belonging. Italian victories at the Olympic Games and international competitions were celebrated as triumphs of the regime. On another side, family, women, and birth rates were the focus of particular attention. The regime promoted pro-natalist policies, with incentives for large families, campaigns against celibacy and abortion, and the idealization of women as mothers and custodians of the home.
A New Aggressive Foreign Policy
The first phase of the regime also paved the way for the aggressive turn in foreign and military policy that would lead Italy to war and the tragic consequences of the world conflict. Throughout the 1930s, Mussolini resolutely pursued the dream of building an Italian empire worthy of the grandeur of ancient Rome, a project ideologically rooted in fascist nationalism and expansionism since his rise to power in 1922. After consolidating his regime and imposing total control over Italian society, the Duce decided to focus on strengthening Italy as a colonial power, for which the conquest of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) became his primary objective.
Ethiopia, one of the last independent African states, posed a symbolic and political challenge to Mussolini. In 1935, under the pretext of a military provocation (the Wal Wal incident), Italy invaded Ethiopia, sparking what came to be known as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (the first of the Italo-Ethiopian Wars was fought in 1895-6). The military campaign, which began in October 1935, relied on the massive use of modern weapons, including tanks, heavy artillery, and poison gas, the latter prohibited by international law. Ethiopian forces, led by Emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975), put up a strong but ineffective resistance to Italy's numerical and technological advantage. In May 1936, the Italian victory was officially sealed with the fall of Addis Ababa and the proclamation of Mussolini as Emperor of Italy, a title meant to symbolize Italy's rebirth as a world power.
The conquest had immediate and dire international consequences. The League of Nations condemned the aggression and imposed economic sanctions against Italy, an action that, however, proved ineffective due to the reluctance of Great Britain and France to jeopardize their efforts to contain Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) in Europe. A break of international law, such as the invasion of a Member State of the League of Nations as Ethiopia, was tolerated in order to try to co-opt Mussolini against Hitler. The mild sanctions did not include oil or steel, fundamental to weakening any military initiative. However, the Abyssinia Crisis, as it was called at the time, marked the beginning of Italy's diplomatic isolation. Mussolini, alienated from the Western powers, now sought new allies.
Mussolini found in Hitler and the Nazi regime a partner with whom he shared authoritarian, nationalist, and militaristic ideals. From 1936 onward, the "Rome-Berlin Axis" strengthened, establishing a political and military cooperation that would lead to Italy's participation in WWII. This alliance also pushed Italy to adopt policies increasingly similar to those of Nazi Germany, especially in terms of racial discrimination. In September 1938, the Fascist regime enacted the so-called "Laws for the Defense of the Race," which introduced a series of discriminatory measures against the Jewish community. The racial laws stripped Italian Jews of numerous fundamental rights: they were barred from public office, university teaching, and many professions and economic activities, while mixed marriages were prohibited. Official propaganda began to spread anti-Semitic stereotypes, justifying these measures with a pseudo-scientific pretext that fuelled social hatred and segregation. This turning point represented a dramatic moment in Italian history, marking the beginning of a persecution that would lead, in the following years and especially during the war, to arrests, deportations, and Italian participation in the Nazi genocide.
The Second World War
In parallel with these developments, Mussolini intensified military preparations and foreign aggression. The Second World War, which officially broke out in September 1939, was the largest and most destructive conflict in history and also marked a crucial moment for Fascist Italy. However, the roots of Italy's involvement in the conflict stretch back to the preceding years, with direct intervention in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), which anticipated the political and military dynamics of an increasingly divided and tense Europe. Italy intervened in the Spanish conflict alongside General Francisco Franco (1892-1975), another fascist dictator fighting against Republican forces supported by communists and democrats. Italy's intervention in Spain was a test for the armed forces and an opportunity to strengthen ties with Nazi Germany, which also supported Franco. In May 1939, in fact, Italy and Germany formalized their military pact with the so-called Pact of Steel, a commitment that bound both countries to support each other in the event of conflict. This document officially sanctioned Italy's entry into the Axis bloc, marking a definitive choice of sides and paving the way for Italy's participation in WWII.
Despite signing the Pact of Steel with Germany in May 1939, Italy initially remained neutral at the outbreak of war, when Germany invaded Poland. Mussolini, aware of Italy's military shortcomings and economic difficulties, hesitated to enter the conflict immediately as he waited to assess how events unfolded. Only on 10 June 1940, with France already in serious difficulty due to the German advance, did Mussolini declare war on France and Great Britain. Mussolini was convinced that Italy could easily make territorial gains and that Axis victory was imminent. This decision, however, proved to be a grave strategic error. The Italian armed forces were unprepared for a large-scale conflict: they lacked adequate material, organization, and a coherent strategy. The campaign in France resulted in limited and insignificant territorial gains, while the invasion of Greece, begun in October 1940 without a clear plan, turned into a resounding military failure. The Greek army, supported by volunteers and well-motivated, repelled the Italian invasion, subsequently obliging German forces to intervene in 1941 to avert a disaster for the Axis bloc. This episode weakened Mussolini's image as a strongman and marked the first rift in the alliance.
At the same time, Italy was fighting in North Africa, where it attempted to expand its colonial control against British forces in Egypt and other colonies. The North Africa Campaign became one of the main fronts of the conflict, with alternating victories and defeats between the German Afrika korps, led by General Erwin Rommel, and the Allied troops. Logistical difficulties, scarce resources, and the hostile terrain contributed to making the war in Africa a gruelling struggle, culminating in the final defeat of Italy and Germany in 1943. The Mediterranean was also the scene of intense naval and air combat, as control of the sea lanes was vital for supplying troops and colonies. Allied attacks on the Italian coast, particularly the bombing of cities, caused severe damage and a progressive decline in the population's morale.
The Decline of the Regime & Mussolini's Fall
The worsening military situation, combined with the economic crisis and growing social discontent, severely undermined the stability of the Fascist regime. 1943 was a decisive year: Allied forces landed in Sicily in the summer, opening a new front in the heart of the Mediterranean and marking the beginning of Italy's liberation. On 25 July 1943, the Grand Council of Fascism, the main governmental body, after years of Mussolini's absolute control, voted a motion of no confidence and deposed him, an act which had the support of King Victor Emmanuel III. Mussolini was arrested, and the monarchy attempted to negotiate a separate peace with the Allies.
Freed from captivity by the Nazis in Operation Gran Sasso in the autumn of 1943, Mussolini was appointed head of the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a puppet state based in Salò, under direct German control. However, the Duce's effective power was limited and the country found itself divided between the Allied forces advancing from the south, the anti-fascist partisans, and the German troops who still occupied much of the territory.
With the liberation of northern Italy by the Allies and the partisans, Mussolini attempted to flee to Switzerland disguised as a German soldier. He was recognized and captured on 27 April 1945, in Dongo, on Lake Como, along with his companion Claretta Petacci. The following day, both were shot by partisans. Their bodies were displayed in Milan's Piazzale Loreto, as a symbol of the end of fascism and a warning to the population.
