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The first four caliphs of the Islamic empire – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali are referred to as Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs (632-661 CE) by mainstream Sunni Muslims. Their tenure started with the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE...

The Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE), the first dynasty to take the title of Caliphate, was established in 661 CE by Muawiya (l. c. 602-680 CE), who had served as the governor of Syria under the Rashidun Caliphate, after the death of the fourth...

Ali ibn Abi Talib, or simply Ali, (l. 601-661 CE) was among the first Muslims, a cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad (l. 570-632 CE), and later reigned as the fourth Caliph of Islam from 656 CE to 661 CE, when he was murdered...

The First Fitna (656-661 CE) was the first civil war of the Islamic Empire fought between the fourth Rashidun Caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661 CE), and the governor of Syria, Muawiya (later Muawiya I; r. 661-680 CE). Deep fissures divided...

A map indicating the commanderies and territories (shaded blue) under the control of the Teutonic Order c. 1300 CE.

A depiction of Croesus (r. 560-546 BCE), the King of Lydia on a Greek red-figure pottery vase. Lydia was a region in western Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) and was so wealthy that the expression "as rich as Croesus" originates in reference...

A diagram showing the effect on the bones of the foot from the ancient Chinese practice of foot-binding.

Ostracon depicting an Egyptian dancer, found at Deir el-Medina. New Kingdom of Egypt, 19th or 20th Dynasties, (c. 1200 BCE). Egyptian Museum, Turin.

A photograph of a reconstruction of the original anatomical theatre at the University of Padua, Italy. In use in the Early-modern period and used for dissections before an audience.

A Persian seizes his Parthian opponent, Firuzabad Relief, Iran, 224-241 CE.