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Definition
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) was an American essayist as well as the foremost representative of the transcendentalist movement of the early to mid-19th century. Known mostly for his essays Self-Reliance, The American Scholar, and Nature...

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Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson, albumen print by J. J. Hawes, copied from an 1857 daguerreotype portrait by A. S. Southworth & J. J. Hawes, 1880.
George Eastman Museum, Rochester, NY.

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Ralph Waldo Emerson House
Ralph Waldo Emerson House, the long-time home of the transcendentalist essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Concord, Massachusetts, USA.

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Grave of Ralph Waldo Emerson
Grave of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, MA, postcard by Tichnor Bros. Inc., Boston, MA, c. 1930-1945.
Boston Public Library.

Definition
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) was an American author of novels and short stories, who produced some of the most memorable works of American literature: the novels The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables as well as the short...

Definition
Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) was an American philosopher, writer, naturalist, and political activist. He is best known for his book Walden, published in 1854, which recounts his two-year experiment living alone in a small cottage at Walden...

Definition
Walt Whitman
Walt Whitman (1819-1892) was an American journalist and poet, best known for his collection of poems entitled Leaves of Grass, first published in 1855. He remains an influential figure in American literature, whose writings reflect how deeply...

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Statue of Pierre Waldo
A 19th-century statue of Pierre Waldo (l. 1140–1218), a forerunner of the Christian Reformists. Luther Memorial in Worms, Germany.

Article
The Sixteenth-Century Massacre of the Waldensians of Mérindol
As the Reformation developed in France in the first half of the 16th century, there were several episodes of severe repression which preceded the Wars of Religion (1562-1598). These were times of great hardship and oppression against those...

Article
Six Great Heresies of the Middle Ages
The medieval Church established its monopoly over the spiritual life of Europeans in the Early Middle Ages (c. 476-1000) and consolidated that power throughout the High Middle Ages (1000-1300) and Late Middle Ages (1300-1500). Along the way...