---
title: Writing: The Preservation of Human Thought and Action
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-05-03
---
# Writing: The Preservation of Human Thought and Action
_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_
Writing is the physical manifestation of a spoken language. It is thought that human beings developed language circa 35,000 BCE as evidenced by cave paintings from the period of the Cro-Magnon Man (circa 50,000-30,000 BCE) which appear to express concepts concerning daily life.
These images suggest a language because, in some instances, they seem to tell a story (say, of a hunting expedition in which specific events occurred) rather than being simply pictures of animals and people.
Written language, however, does not emerge until its invention in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/), southern [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), circa 3600/3500 BCE. This early writing was called [cuneiform](https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/) and consisted of making specific marks in wet clay with a reed implement. The writing system of the Egyptians was already in use before the rise of their [Early Dynastic](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Early_Dynastic/) Period (circa 3150 BCE) and is thought to have developed from Mesopotamian cuneiform (though this theory is disputed) and came to be known as heiroglyphics.
The phoenetic writing systems of the Greeks ("phoenetic" from the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) *phonein* - "to speak clearly"), and later the Romans, came from [Phoenicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/). The Phoenician writing system, though quite different from that of Mesopotamia, still owes its development to the [Sumerians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) and their advances in the written word. Independently of the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/) or [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/), writing was developed in Mesoamerica by the [Maya](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Maya/) circa 250 with some evidence suggesting a date as early as 500 BCE and, also independently, by the Chinese.
### Writing & History
Writing in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) developed from divination rites using [oracle bones](https://www.worldhistory.org/Oracle_Bones/) circa 1200 BCE and appears to also have arisen independently as there is no evidence of cultural transference at this time between China and Mesopotamia. The ancient Chinese practice of divination involved etching marks on bones or shells which were then heated until they cracked.
The cracks would then be interpreted by a Diviner. If that Diviner had etched "Next Tuesday it will rain" and "Next Tuesday it will not rain" the pattern of the cracks on the bone or shell around those etchings would tell him which would be the case. In time, these etchings evolved into the Chinese [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/).
History is impossible without the written word as one would lack context in which to interpret physical evidence from the ancient past. Writing records the lives of a people, it is the preservation of human thought and action, and so is the first necessary step in the written history of a [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) or [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/).
A prime example of this problem is the difficulty scholars of the late 19th/early 20th centuries had in understanding the [Maya Civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Maya_Civilization/), in that they could not read the glyphs of the Maya and so wrongly interpreted much of the physical evidence they excavated. The early explorers of the Maya sites, such as Stephens and Catherwood, believed they had found evidence of an ancient [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) civilization in Central America.
This same problem is evident in understanding the ancient Kingdom of [Meroe](https://www.worldhistory.org/Meroe/) (in modern day Sudan), whose Meroitic Script is yet to be deciphered as well as the so-called [Linear A script](https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_A_Script/) of the ancient [Minoan culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) of [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/), still undeciphered, and that of the [Indus Valley Civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/), also undeciphered. The history, culture, and daily life of these kingdoms and principalities remain unknown to the modern world because their writing systems cannot be read.
### The Invention of Writing
The Sumerians first invented writing as a means of long-distance communication which was necessitated by trade. With the rise of the [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) in Mesopotamia, and the need for resources which were lacking in the region, long-distance trade developed and, with it, the need to be able to communicate across the expanses between cities or regions.
The earliest form of writing was pictographs – symbols which represented objects – and served to aid in remembering such things as which parcels of grain had gone to which destination or how many sheep were needed for events like sacrifices in the temples.
These pictographs were impressed onto wet clay which was then dried, and these became official records of commerce. As [beer](https://www.worldhistory.org/Beer/) was a very popular beverage in ancient Mesopotamia, many of the earliest records extant have to do with the sale of beer. With pictographs, one could tell how many jars or vats of beer were involved in a transaction but not necessarily what that transaction meant. As scholar [Paul](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Paul/) Kriwaczek notes,
> All that had been devised thus far was a technique for noting down things, items and objects, not a writing system. A record of `Two Sheep [Temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) [God](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/)' tells us nothing about whether the sheep are being delivered to, or received from, the temple, whether they are carcasses, beasts on the hoof, or anything else about them. (63)
In order to express concepts more complex than financial transactions or lists of items, a more elaborate writing system was required, and this was developed in the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) circa 3600/3500 BCE. Pictograms, though still in use, gave way to phonograms – symbols which represented sounds – and those sounds were the spoken language of the people of Sumer.
With phonograms, one could more easily convey precise meaning and so, in the example of the two sheep and the temple of Inanna, one could now make clear whether the sheep were going to or coming from the temple, whether they were living or dead, and what role they played in the life of the temple.
Previously, one had only static images in pictographs showing objects like sheep and temples. With the development of phonograms one had a dynamic means of conveying motion to or from a location, who was sending and who receiving the goods, the quantity and quality, and other pertinent information.
Further, whereas in earlier writing (known as proto-cuneiform) one was restricted to lists of things, a writer could now indicate what the significance of those things might be. The scholar Ira Spar writes:
> This new way of interpreting signs is called the rebus principle. Only a few examples of its use exist in the earliest stages of cuneiform from between 3200 and 3000 B.C. The consistent use of this type of phonetic writing only becomes apparent after 2600 B.C.
> It constitutes the beginning of a true writing system characterized by a complex combination of word-signs and phonograms—signs for vowels and syllables—that allowed the scribe to express ideas. By the middle of the Third Millennium B.C., cuneiform primarily written on clay tablets was used for a vast array of economic, religious, political, literary, and scholarly documents.
### [  The Art of War by Sun-Tzu Coelacan (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1005/the-art-of-war-by-sun-tzu/ "The Art of War by Sun-Tzu")
### Writing & [Literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/)
This new means of communication allowed scribes to record the events of their times as well as their religious beliefs and, in time, to create an art form which was not possible before the written word: literature. The first writer in history known by name is the [Akkadian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/akkadian/) high priestess [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/) (circa 2300 BCE), daughter of [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (reign 2334-2279 BCE), who wrote her hymns to the goddess Inanna and signed them with her name and seal.
The so-called *[Matter of Aratta](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2164/matter-of-aratta/)*, four poems dealing with King Enmerkar of Uruk and his son Lugalbanda, were probably composed during the [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/) III Period between cica 2112-circa 2004 BCE. In the first of them, *Enmerkar and The Lord of Aratta*, it is explained that writing developed because the messenger of King Enmerkar, going back and forth between him and the King of the city of Aratta, eventually had too much to remember and so Enmerkar had the idea to write his messages down; and so writing was born.
*The Epic of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/)*, considered the first epic tale in the world and among the oldest extant literature, was composed at some point earlier than circa 2100 BCE when it was written down and deals with the great king of Uruk (and descendent of Enmerkar and Lugalbanda) Gilgamesh and his quest for the meaning of life.
The myths of the people of Mesopotamia, the stories of their gods and heroes, their history, their methods of building, of burying their dead, of celebrating feast days, were now all able to be recorded for posterity. Writing made history possible because now events could be recorded and later read by any literate individual instead of relying on a community's storyteller to remember and recite past events. Scholar [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) [Noah](https://www.worldhistory.org/Noah/) Kramer comments:
> \[The Sumerians\] originated a system of writing on clay which was borrowed and used all over the Near East for some two thousand years. Almost all that we know of the early history of western Asia comes from the thousands of clay documents inscribed in the cuneiform script developed by the Sumerians and excavated by archaeologists. (4)
So important was writing to the Mesopotamians that, under the Assyrian King [Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/) (reign 685-627 BCE), over 30,000 clay tablet-books were collected and housed at his capital, [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/), in a structure now known as the [Library of Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Ashurbanipal/). Ashurbanipal was hoping to preserve the heritage, culture, and history of the region and understood clearly the importance of the written word in achieving this end.
Among the many books in his library, Ashurbanipal included works of literature, such as the tale of Gilgamesh or the *[Myth of Etana](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/224/the-myth-of-etana/)*, because he realized that literature articulates not just the story of a certain people, but of all people. The historian Will Durant writes:
> Literature is at first words rather than letters, despite its name; it arises as clerical chants or magic charms, recited usually by the priests, and transmitted orally from memory to memory. *Carmina*, as the Romans named poetry, meant both verses and charms; *ode*, among the Greeks, meant originally a magic spell; so did the English *rune* and *lay*, and the German *Lied*.
> Rhythm and meter, suggested, perhaps, by the rhythms of nature and bodily life, were apparently developed by magicians or shamans to preserve, transmit, and enhance the magic incantations of their verse. Out of these sacerdotal origins, the poet, the orator, and the historian were differentiated and secularized: the orator as the official lauder of the king or solicitor of the deity; the historian as the recorder of the royal deeds; the poet as the singer of originally sacred chants, the formulator and preserver of heroic legends, and the musician who put his tales to [music](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Music/) for the instruction of populace and kings.
### [  Book of the Dead Papyrus Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/722/book-of-the-dead-papyrus/ "Book of the Dead Papyrus")
### The [Alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/)
The role of the poet in preserving heroic legends would become an important one in cultures throughout the ancient world. The Mesopotamian scribe Shin-Legi-Unninni (wrote 1300-1000 BCE) would help preserve and transmit *The Epic of Gilgamesh*. [Homer](https://www.worldhistory.org/homer/) (circa 800 BCE) would do the same for the Greeks and [Virgil](https://www.worldhistory.org/virgil/) (70-19 BCE) for the Romans. The Indian epic *[Mahabharata](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mahabharata/)* (written down circa 400 BCE) preserves the oral legends of that region in the same way the tales and legends of [Scotland](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scotland/) and [Ireland](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ireland/), of China and of ancient [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) do. All of these works, and those which came after them, were only made possible through the advent of writing.
The early cuneiform writers established a system which would completely change the nature of the world in which they lived. The past, and the stories of the people, could now be preserved through writing. The [Phoenicians](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/)' contribution of the alphabet made writing easier and more accessible to other cultures, but the basic system of putting symbols down on paper to represent words and concepts began much earlier. Durant notes:
> The Phoenicians did not create the alphabet, they marketed it; taking it apparently from [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) and Crete, they imported it piecemeal to [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/), [Sidon](https://www.worldhistory.org/sidon/), and [Byblos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byblos/), and exported it to every city on the [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/); they were the middlemen, not the producers, of the alphabet. By the time of Homer, the Greeks were taking over this Phoenician – or the allied Aramaic – alphabet, and were calling it by the Semitic names of the first two letters, *Alpha*, *Beta*; Hebrew *Aleph*, *Beth*.
Early writing systems, imported to other cultures, evolved into the written language of those cultures so that the Greek and Latin would serve as the basis for European script in the same way that the Semitic Aramaic script would provide the basis for Hebrew, Arabic, and possibly [Sanskrit](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sanskrit/). The materials of writers have evolved as well, from the cut reeds with which early Mesopotamian scribes marked the clay tablets of cuneiform to the reed pens and papyrus of the Egyptians, the parchment of the scrolls of the Greeks and Romans, the calligraphy of the Chinese, on through the ages to the present day of computerized composition and the use of processed paper.
In whatever age, since its inception, writing has served to communicate the thoughts and feelings of the individual and of that person's culture, their collective history, and their experiences with the human condition, and to preserve those experiences for future generations.
#### Editorial Review
This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).
## Bibliography
- [Black, J. , et. al. *The Literature of Ancient Sumer.* Oxford University Press, 2005.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199263116/)
- [Coe, M. D. *The Maya.* Thames & Hudson, 2015.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0500291888/)
- [Durant, W. *Our Oriental Heritage.* Simon & Schuster, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00005WJGO/)
- [Ebrey, P. B. *The Cambridge Illustrated History of China.* Cambridge University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521124336/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.* University of Chicago Press, 1971.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0226452387/)
- [Kriwaczek, P. *Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.* St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1250054168/)
- [Scarre, C. & Fagan, B.F. *Ancient Civilizations.* Pearson, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0131928783/)
- [The Origins of Writing by Ira Spar](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrtg/hd_wrtg.htm "The Origins of Writing by Ira Spar"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC, 2nd Edition.* Blackwell Publishing, 2006.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1405149116/)
- [Wise Bauer, S. *The History of the Ancient World.* W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/039305974X/)
## About the Author
Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)
## Timeline
- **c. 3600 BCE - 3500 BCE**: First instance of written language in [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/).
- **c. 2600 BCE**: Beginning of [literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/) in [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/).
- **c. 2300 BCE**: Life of [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/), daughter of [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/), and world's first author known by name.
- **c. 2100 BCE - c. 1400 BCE**: The tales of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/) written which inform the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- **c. 2000 BCE - c. 1650 BCE**: Cretan Hieroglyphic [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) is in use.
- **c. 1900 BCE - c. 1600 BCE**: Composition of The Descent of [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/).
- **c. 1850 BCE - c. 1450 BCE**: The [Linear A script](https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_A_Script/) of the [Minoan civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) is in use.
- **c. 1640 BCE - c. 1700 BCE**: Written form of the Atrahasis myth of the Great Flood.
- **c. 1600 BCE**: Canaanite [alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/).
- **1600 BCE - 1046 BCE**: [Writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) develops in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) during the [Shang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shang_Dynasty/).
- **c. 1600 BCE - 1000 BCE**: Jiaguwen [Script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) develops in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **c. 1500 BCE - c. 1200 BCE**: The [Linear B script](https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_B_Script/) of the [Mycenaean civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mycenaean_Civilization/) is in use.
- **c. 1500 BCE - 1100 BCE**: The Rig [Veda](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Vedas/) written, mentioning the [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) Rudra ([Shiva](https://www.worldhistory.org/shiva/)) and goddess [Tara](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tara_(Goddess)/) (among others) for the first time.
- **c. 1500 BCE - c. 500 BCE**: The Vedic Period in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/) after a greater migration of the Indo-[Aryans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Aryan/) from Central Asia
- **c. 1400 BCE**: Ugaritic [alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/) of 30 letters is invented.
- **1100 BCE**: Phoenician [alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/).
- **c. 1000 BCE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of Ahiram (or Ahirom) of [Byblos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byblos/), whose sarcophagus bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician [alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/).
- **c. 1000 BCE - 700 BCE**: Dazhuan [Script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) develops in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **800 BCE**: Earliest examples of [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) alphabetic [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/).
- **c. 700 BCE**: Xiaozhuan [Script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) develops in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **c. 647 BCE - c. 629 BCE**: Extensive collection of clay tablets acquired known as the [Library of Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Ashurbanipal/) at [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/).
- **c. 500 BCE**: Lishu "Clerky [Script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/)" develops in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **196 BCE**: The [Rosetta Stone](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rosetta_Stone/) was made, a stela carrying a priestly decree from the reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) V in three languages: [Egyptian hieroglyphs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Hieroglyphs/), demotic and [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/).
- **23 CE - Aug 79 CE**: Life of [Pliny the Elder](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pliny_the_Elder/).
- **c. 350 CE - c. 950 CE**: Estimated use of the [Ogham](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogham/) in [Ireland](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ireland/) and southwestern [England](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/england/).
- **626 CE - 649 CE**: Woodblock printing process develops under reign of Emperor [Taizong](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Taizong/) of the [Tang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tang_Dynasty/).
- **1234 CE**: Movable [metal](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/metal/) type printing is invented in [Goryeo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goryeo/), [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/).
## Questions & Answers
### When was writing invented?
Writing was invented in Sumer, Mesopotamia, in circa 3600/3500 BCE.
### Who invented writing and where?
Writing was invented by the Sumerians in the city of Uruk circa 3600/3500 BCE and the refined further in circa 3200 BCE in that same city.
### What were the first written works in Mesopotamia?
The first written works in Mesopotamia were receipts for the transfer of goods, notably of beer, which was a dietary staple of the Mesopotamians.
### What is the oldest work of literature in the world?
The Epic of Gilgamesh is the oldest work of literature in the world, dated to c. 2100.
## External Links
- [Cuneiform Writing @ University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology](http://www.penn.museum/games/cuneiform.shtml)
- [Phoenician Alphabet](http://phoenicia.org/alphabet.html)
- [Ancient Scripts: Greek](http://www.ancientscripts.com/greek.html)
- [First Writing System](http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/MesopotamiaSumerScript01.htm)
- [The Canadian Centre for Epigraphic Documents](http://www.epigraphy.ca/)
- [The Phoenician Alphabet](https://www.missedinhistory.com/podcasts/the-phoenician-alphabet.htm)
- [Saki Mafundikwa: Ingenuity and elegance in ancient African alphabets](https://www.ted.com/talks/saki_mafundikwa_ingenuity_and_elegance_in_ancient_african_alphabets)
- [The British Museum Membercast: The origins of writing](https://blog.britishmuseum.org/the-british-museum-membercast-the-origins-of-writing/)
- [Writing](http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/writing/home_set.html)
- [Writing](http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/writing/home_set.html)
- [Ancient Scripts: Chinese](http://www.ancientscripts.com/chinese.html)
- [Menu](http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/writing/story/main.html)
- [The History of Writing](http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_1998/ling001/Writinglect.html)
- [Enheduanna](http://www.cddc.vt.edu/feminism/Enheduanna.html)
- [The Origins of Writing | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrtg/hd_wrtg.htm)
## Cite This Work
### APA
Mark, J. J. (2011, April 28). Writing: The Preservation of Human Thought and Action. *World History Encyclopedia*.
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Writing: The Preservation of Human Thought and Action." *World History Encyclopedia*, April 28, 2011. .
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Writing: The Preservation of Human Thought and Action." *World History Encyclopedia*, 28 Apr 2011, .
## License & Copyright
Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 28 April 2011. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.