---
title: Warfare: The Development of Resources for Armed Conflict
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-04-13
---
# Warfare: The Development of Resources for Armed Conflict
_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_
Warfare is generally understood to be the controlled and systematic waging of armed conflict between sovereign nations or states, using military might and strategy, until one opponent is defeated on the field or sues for peace in the face of inevitable destruction and greater loss of human life.
The first recorded [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) in history is that between [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/) and [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) in 2700 BCE in which Sumer was victorious, and the first peace treaty ever signed ending hostilities between nations was between [Ramesses II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ramesses_II/) (the Great) of the [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) and Hattusili III of the [Hittite](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) Empire in 1258 BCE.
In both of these cases, war was waged, and a treaty was signed to resolve political and cultural conflicts. Warfare has been a part of the human condition throughout recorded history and invariably results from the tribe mentality inherent in human communities and their fear or mistrust of another, different, 'tribe' as manifested in the people of another region, [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/), or [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/).
### Warfare & the Unification of [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/)
One example of the tribe mentality resulting in warfare can be seen in China during the [Warring States Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/) (476-221 BCE) where seven tribal states fought for supreme control of the land. The [Zhou Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Zhou_Dynasty/) (1046-226 BCE) which had served as the seat of political authority in China (though not of a unified China) was in decline, and each of the independent states recognized the opportunity to gain supremacy.
As every state employed the same tactics and observed the same policies of war, none could gain a significant advantage over the others. The Chinese historian [Sima Qian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sima_Qian/) wrote that the people of China during this period knew no other life than that of warfare generation after generation.
The first military conflicts in China are recorded with the rise of the [Xia Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xia_Dynasty/) (circa 2070-1600 BCE) but, once political contentions were settled, peace prevailed. During the Warring States Period, however, the country was in constant turmoil. This situation was resolved by the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, who implemented the concept of total war in his campaigns so effectively that, between 230 and 221 BCE, he conquered the other states completely.
Ying Zheng unified China under the [Qin Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Qin_Dynasty/) and claimed for himself the title of First Emperor or, Qin [Shi Huangti](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shi_Huangdi/), the title by which he is best known. His use of warfare to resolve long-standing political disputes serves as a paradigm for the use of war generally, whether on a larger or a smaller scale.
### The Victors & the Vanquished
Warfare in ancient times was conducted differently than what would be considered acceptable by today's standards; the vanquished could be certain that slavery or summary execution awaited them. When [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) took the Phoenician [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/) in July of 332 BCE, he had most of the population killed and sold the rest into slavery.
In September of 52 BCE, when [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) defeated [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/) and his Gallic tribes at the [Battle of Alesia](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1734/battle-of-alesia/), the garrison was sold into slavery and each [Roman legionary](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Legionary/) in [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/)'s legions received, as a gift, one [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/) as a personal slave. Over 40,000 Gauls were taken as slaves by the legionaries alone, not counting those others sold to tribes who made peace with Caesar and formed alliances after Alesia.
[  Siege of Alesia The Creative Assembly (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2237/siege-of-alesia/ "Siege of Alesia")When [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) defeated [Mark Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) and [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/) at the [Battle of Actium](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Actium/) in 31 BCE, a similar fate awaited the conquered who were not fortunate enough to die in [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/). This same model of warfare obtains as far back as [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (reign 2334-2279 BCE) who united Mesopotamia under the [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) and was perfected by the Assyrian Empire during the [Iron Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Iron_Age/) (1000-500 BCE). The Assyrians were the first political force to employ large-scale deportations of the conquered populace to other regions and resettlement of the region by their own people. The citizens of the defeated city or state were either sold into slavery or forced to relocate to an area or region dictated by their conquerors.
### Tactics & Formations
The armies who waged war on the field were initially made up of infantry units, who engaged an enemy force and closed with them using spears, shields, and some form of body armor and helmet. In time, armies developed to include shock troops (infantry who engaged the opposing lines in tight formation) and peltasts (infantry in looser formations who fired long-range missiles at the enemy and were more mobile).
The formation known as the phalanx was the standard in virtually every army from its origin in Sumer in 3000 BCE through the time of the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). The phalanx was modified many times through initiatives by men such as [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) or his son [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) the Great, but the basic formation, and its effectiveness, remained constant.
With the introduction of the horse to combat, cavalry units arose and the war [chariot](https://www.worldhistory.org/chariot/) was frequently employed in battle. As armies grew in size, and as history established the precedent of empires, more and more resources were brought to bear in battle including the use of animals such as camels (which [Cyrus the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyrus_the_Great/) employed brilliantly at the [Battle of Thymbra](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Thymbra/) in 546 BCE), or elephants (famously used by [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) in the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/) 218-201 BCE), or even cats, which were used by [Cambyses II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cambyses_II/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) to defeat Egypt at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE.
[  The Battle of Pelusium Simon Seitz (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13914/the-battle-of-pelusium/ "The Battle of Pelusium")The Persian king was aware of the veneration of cats in [Egyptian culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Culture/), and so had his army paint the image of the cat on their shields and, further, drove cats and other animals sacred to the Egyptians before the front lines. The Egyptians, unwilling to risk the wrath of their gods should they injure any of the animals, surrendered to the Persian army.
The first naval battle in recorded history was fought between the ships of the Hittite King [Suppiluliuma](https://www.worldhistory.org/Suppiluliuma_I/) II and an invading fleet from the island of [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/) circa 1210 BCE. Ships were no doubt used in battle before this date, however, and records indicate that [Sargon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/sargon/) of [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) made use of boats in warfare which could be dismantled and carried over land.
The [peltast](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peltast/) units with their ability to inflict severe damage on an enemy long-range eventually inspired the artillery unit, who used large weapons for the same purpose. Examples of [Roman artillery](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/649/roman-artillery/) are the *scorpio* (a large crossbow), the *ballista* (similar to a catapult), the *onager* (a small ballista), and the catapult. By the time the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) was conquering the world, all tactics and every resource available in the service of warfare were made use of by the legions.
### Ancient Armies & Weaponry
Battle strategies and methods of warfare differed by country, by ruler, and by era. In ancient [Egyptian warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Warfare/), the army was equipped with a simple spear and a leather shield, but, by circa 1570 BCE, when the Egyptians defeated the foreign [Hyksos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hyksos/) who had taken Lower Egypt, they artfully employed the horse and chariot, body armor, and the composite bow as well as the [bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/) khepesh sword.
Ironically, it was the Hyksos themselves who had given the Egyptians the technology (especially the composite bow, the tin bronze sword, and chariot) to defeat them. Prior to the arrival of the Hyksos in Egypt, the army was largely equipped with the same kinds of weapons they had used in the [Old Kingdom of Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt/) (circa 2613-2181 BCE). Advances in weaponry, due at first to the Hyksos and then to the [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/), led to the development of the professional fighting force of the [New Kingdom of Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt/) (circa 1570-1069 BCE), which created and maintained the [Egyptian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Empire/).
Ancient [Persian warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persian_Warfare/) favored armored cavalry, heavy infantry (of whom the elite were known as the 10,000 [Immortals](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/immortals/)), and archers who would rain down arrows on an opposing force to create 'awe and wonder' in the ranks. Ancient [Greek warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Warfare/) relied on armored infantry (the hoplites) and the phalanx formation, a dense grouping of soldiers with long spears and interlocking shields. In [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), the infantry did most of the fighting, no matter what city-states were involved, the notable exception being the naval [battle of Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Salamis/) in 480 BCE.
[  The Alexander Mosaic Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2965/the-alexander-mosaic/ "The Alexander Mosaic")[Philip II](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Philip_II/) of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) introduced the sarissa (a long spear) to the phalanx, which greatly enhanced the formation's effectiveness on the field, and the [army of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/676/the-army-of-alexander-the-great/) made use of the sarissa infantry phalanxes but also employed light and heavy cavalry and chariots to effect. The three-line legion of the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) Empire, equipped with body armor, spear, shield and short sword replaced the phalanx formation and, supported by [Roman cavalry](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Cavalry/), proved itself the greatest fighting force in antiquity after Alexander the Great.
### Conclusion
Every ancient culture, more or less, followed the same basic pattern of developing rudimentary weapons (usually based on tools they had used in hunting) which then were improved upon as members of different tribes came in contact – and conflict – with each other.
As tribes became cultures and civilizations with differing interests, conflict became more common and weaponry, and warfare, more sophisticated in an effort to achieve greater results with less effort. No matter the culture or the time period, governments have routinely shown more interest, and exerted more effort, in warfare than in almost any other aspect of a nation's life.
#### Editorial Review
This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).
## Bibliography
- [Anglim, S. *FIGHTING TECHNIQUES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 3000 BCE-500CE.* Amber Books, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1909160466/)
- [Bunson, M. *Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt.* Gramercy, 1999.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0517203804/)
- [Davis, P.K. *100 Decisive Battles.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195143663/)
- [Durant, W. *Our Oriental Heritage.* Simon & Schuster, 1954.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00005WJGO/)
- [The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats](https://www.ancient.eu.com/article/43/ "The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats"), accessed 15 May 2020.
- [The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch](http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html "The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Worthington, I. *Alexander the Great.* Longman, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/140580162X/)
## About the Author
Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)
## Timeline
- **2400 BCE**: First use of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) chariots in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 2240 BCE**: [Naram-Sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/) of [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) campaigns against the Amorites in northern [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/).
- **2200 BCE - 1500 BCE**: The [Minoan Civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) flourishes on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/), [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/). King Minos establishes the first navy in the region.
- **2193 BCE - 2154 BCE**: [Gutian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) invasion topples [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/).
- **c. 1750 BCE**: [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) conquers [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **1595 BCE**: [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) under Mursilli I sack [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/), ending [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) rule.
- **c. 1458 BCE**: [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) and Megiddo lead a Canaanite alliance against the [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) invasion by [Thutmose III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thutmose_III/).
- **c. 1457 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Megiddo: [Thutmose III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thutmose_III/) of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) defeats a coalition of [Canaan](https://www.worldhistory.org/canaan/), [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/), [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/), and Megiddo led by Durusha, king of Kadesh.
- **1307 BCE - 1275 BCE**: Reign of Assyrian King [Adad Nirari I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Adad_Nirari_I/), [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) becomes vassal state.
- **1258 BCE**: The Treaty of [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) between Egyptians and [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/). The world's first peace treaty.
- **c. 1250 BCE**: [Trojan War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Trojan_War/), according to [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/).
- **c. 1200 BCE**: [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) invade the [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/).
- **c. 1187 BCE**: [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) is destroyed by the [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) and subsequently vanishes from history.
- **1178 BCE**: [Ramesses](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/ramesses/) III defends [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) from the [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) on the shores at [Xois](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xois/), defeating them completely.
- **1115 BCE - 1076 BCE**: Reign of [Tiglath-Pileser I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiglath_Pileser_I/) of [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) who conquers [Phoenicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/) and revitalizes the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/).
- **722 BCE**: [Israel](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Israel/) is conquered by [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/).
- **c. 700 BCE**: [Iron Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Iron_Age/) begins in [Scotland](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scotland/).
- **671 BCE**: Second [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) Campaign, Assyrian army successfully captures [Memphis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Memphis_(Ancient_Egypt)/) and conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **671 BCE**: [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) is conquered by [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/).
- **667 BCE - 665 BCE**: [Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/) wages [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) to put down rebellions.
- **653 BCE**: [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) expels Assyrians.
- **c. 650 BCE - c. 350 BCE**: Hoplites are the major protagonists in [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) land [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/).
- **648 BCE**: [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) between [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) and the Elamites.
- **586 BCE - 572 BCE**: [Nebuchadnezzar II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nebuchadnezzar_II/) of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) besieges [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/), unsuccessfully.
- **28 May 585 BCE**: A [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) between [Media](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/media/) and [Lydia](https://www.worldhistory.org/lydia/) broke off immediately as a result of a total eclipse of the sun and the two armies made peace. The eclipse was successfully predicted by [Thales of Miletus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thales_of_Miletus/).
- **580 BCE - 376 BCE**: [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) and [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) fight for dominance in [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/).
- **535 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Alalia. Carthaginian navy, in alliance with [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/), defeated [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) ships off the island of Corsica.
- **525 BCE**: [Cambyses II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cambyses_II/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) takes the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Pelusium, conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **525 BCE - 404 BCE**: [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **512 BCE - 506 BCE**: The Wu Chu wars in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) between the States of Wu and Chu.
- **506 BCE**: The [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Boju at which the Wu forces under [Sun-Tzu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sun-Tzu/) defeated the Chu.
- **498 BCE - 493 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the Latins.
- **11 Sep 490 BCE**: A combined force of [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) hoplites defeat the Persians at [Marathon](https://www.worldhistory.org/marathon/).
- **485 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is destroyed by [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/), King of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **c. 481 BCE - 221 BCE**: The [Warring States Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/) in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), suggested time-period for composition of [The Art of War](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Art_of_War/).
- **Aug 480 BCE**: The indecisive [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Artemision between the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) and Persian fleets of [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/). The Greeks withdraw to [Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Salamis/).
- **Aug 480 BCE**: [Battle of Thermopylae](https://www.worldhistory.org/thermopylae/). 300 Spartans under King [Leonidas](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Leonidas/) and other [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) allies hold back the Persians led by [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/) for three days but are defeated.
- **Sep 480 BCE**: [Battle of Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Salamis/) where the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) naval fleet led by [Themistocles](https://www.worldhistory.org/Themistocles/) defeats the invading armada of [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **479 BCE**: [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/)' Persian forces are defeated by [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) forces at [Plataea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Plataea/) effectively ending [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/)'s imperial ambitions in [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/).
- **c. 475 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) defeat the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) at the Ticino River.
- **460 BCE - 445 BCE**: First [Peloponnesian War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/).
- **448 BCE**: [Pericles](https://www.worldhistory.org/pericles/) leads the Athenian forces in the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of [Delphi](https://www.worldhistory.org/delphi/).
- **431 BCE - 404 BCE**: The 2nd [Peloponnesian War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/) between [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) (the [Delian League](https://www.worldhistory.org/Delian_League/) and the [Peloponnesian League](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_League/)) which involved all of [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/).
- **c. 430 BCE - 415 BCE**: The *Histories* of [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/) is published. The work is divided into nine chapters, each dedicated to one of the [Muses](https://www.worldhistory.org/muse/).
- **425 BCE**: [Pylos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pylos/) campaign, under Cleon and [Demosthenes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Demosthenes/)' command [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) defeats [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Pylos.
- **413 BCE**: The Athenian expedition in [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) ends in disastrous defeat and the Athenian generals [Nicias](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nicias/) and [Demosthenes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Demosthenes/) are executed.
- **410 BCE**: [Alcibiades](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alcibiades/) leads the Athenian fleet to victory over [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Cyzicus.
- **c. 407 BCE**: The Athenian fleet is defeated by [Lysander](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lysander/) of [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Notium.
- **404 BCE**: End of the [Peloponnesian war](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/), [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) defeated By [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Aigospotamoi, Rule of [the Thirty Tyrants](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Thirty_Tyrants/) in Athens.
- **396 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) defeat an [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) army at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Melpum. Afterwards the Celts heavily settle all over the Po Valley.
- **396 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) expansion begins with the capture of [Veii](https://www.worldhistory.org/Veii/) from the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/).
- **395 BCE - 386 BCE**: The Corinthian Wars between [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) and an alliance of [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/), [Corinth](https://www.worldhistory.org/corinth/), [Argos](https://www.worldhistory.org/argos/), Boeotia and [Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thebes/).
- **c. 390 BCE**: "Gallic Catastrophe:" [Brennus](https://www.worldhistory.org/brennus/) of the Senones defeats the Romans at Allia, and subsequently sacks [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **343 BCE - 341 BCE**: First Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ([Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) vs. Samnites).
- **342 BCE**: [Philip II](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Philip_II/) leads a military expedition against the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/).
- **338 BCE**: The first [battle of Chaeronea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Chaeronea/). [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) defeats the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) alliance directed against him, led by [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and [Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thebes/).
- **334 BCE - 323 BCE**: Period of the conquests of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **5 Nov 333 BCE**: [Battle of Issus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Issus/). [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) is victorious against [Darius](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/darius/) III of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **May 330 BCE**: [Persepolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/persepolis/) is burned and looted by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **326 BCE - 304 BCE**: Second Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/).
- **323 BCE**: [Death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/).
- **300 BCE**: Sarmatians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/).
- **298 BCE - 290 BCE**: Third Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). Victory for [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), peace with the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/).
- **297 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites join forces and defeat the Romans at Camertium.
- **c. 295 BCE**: In a [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) lasting all day, Romans narrowly defeat a force of [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites at Sentinum.
- **285 BCE - 282 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). Rome's dominance in central Italy is secured.
- **284 BCE**: Gauls of the Insubres and Boii tribes defeat the Romans at [Arretium](https://www.worldhistory.org/arretium/).
- **283 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) decisively defeats the Senones at Picenum.
- **280 BCE - 272 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) against [Tarentum](https://www.worldhistory.org/tarentum/). [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Tarentum. Rome's dominance in lower [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) is secured.
- **264 BCE - 241 BCE**: [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) cedes [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **c. 250 BCE - c. 200 CE**: Originally a Celtiberian weapon, the [Gladius Hispaniensis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gladius_Hispaniensis/) was commonly used by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) soldiers for more than four centuries.
- **229 BCE - 228 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) fights Illyrian pirates. Queen Teuta pays tribute to Rome.
- **222 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Cisalpine [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/) (modern-day Provence, France).
- **c. 220 BCE**: [Gortyn](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gortyn/) allies with [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/) to defeat Lyttos on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/).
- **Aug 216 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle of Cannae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Cannae/), the worst defeat in [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) history.
- **214 BCE - 205 BCE**: First Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats Philip V of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/).
- **206 BCE**: Chinese Qin [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) collapses following the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of emperor [Shi Huangti](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shi_Huangdi/). Civil [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) begins.
- **204 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) sails to North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) in the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/).
- **202 BCE**: The [Battle of Gaixia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Gaixia/) in which the [Han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) forces defeat the Chu.
- **c. 200 BCE**: Beginning of the Greco-Bactrian conquests in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/).
- **200 BCE - 196 BCE**: Second Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory.
- **193 BCE**: The Boii are defeated by the Romans, suffering, according to [Livy](https://www.worldhistory.org/livy/), 14,000 dead.
- **190 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Magnesia ad Sipylum, disastrous defeat for [Antiochos](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/antiochos/) III against Romans.
- **172 BCE - 168 BCE**: Third Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Perseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perseus/) of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) challenges [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and is defeated.
- **168 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) at [Battle of Pydna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Pydna/).
- **149 BCE - 146 BCE**: [Third Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Punic_War/).
- **146 BCE**: End of the [Third Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Punic_War/). [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) is destroyed and its lands become the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) province [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **133 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) captures Numantia. End of Iberian resistance.
- **129 BCE**: Parthians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). The [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/) to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) is now controlled by the Parthians.
- **113 BCE**: Romans defeated at Noreia by the [Cimbri](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cimbri/).
- **88 BCE - 63 BCE**: Mithridates of Pontus fights three wars to free [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) from [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **86 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Sulla](https://www.worldhistory.org/sulla/) sacks [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and the port of [Piraeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Piraeus/).
- **63 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) defeats the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) Antiochus XIII and incorporates [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) as a province of the [Roman empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/).
- **58 BCE**: [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) attacks the Helvetii while on migration and defeats them.
- **58 BCE - 51 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/).
- **57 BCE**: A [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) under [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) narrowly defeats an army of Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui.
- **56 BCE**: The navies of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and the Veneti Gauls clash resulting in a [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory. This is the first recorded naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) in the Atlantic Ocean.
- **55 BCE - 54 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s expeditions in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/).
- **52 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) is defeated at Gergovia by [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/).
- **52 BCE**: After becoming trapped and besieged at Alesia, [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/) surrenders to [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/).
- **27 BCE - 19 BCE**: Cantabrian Wars: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the Iberian Penninsula.
- **9 CE**: The Rhine River is established as the boundary between the Latin and German speaking worlds, following the defeat of the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/), under the command of Varus, at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of the Teutoburg Forest.
- **43 CE**: [Claudius](https://www.worldhistory.org/claudius/) commences the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/).
- **43 CE - 47 CE**: Romans [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) South [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) and claim the territory as part of [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/).
- **60 CE - 61 CE**: [Boudicca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boudicca/)'s Revolt in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/).
- **75 CE - 77 CE**: Romans defeat the last of the Northern tribes; [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) complete.
- **83 CE**: The [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Mons Graupius in which Agricola defeats Calgacus of the [Picts](https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/).
- **101 CE - 106 CE**: [Trajan](https://www.worldhistory.org/trajan/) conquers [Dacia](https://www.worldhistory.org/dacia/).
- **167 CE - 180 CE**: Marcomannic Wars.
- **192 CE**: Emperor [Commodus](https://www.worldhistory.org/commodus/) is murdered, civil [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ensues (until 197 CE).
- **195 CE**: First Parthian [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/).
- **197 CE - 198 CE**: Second Parthian [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/).
- **367 CE**: [Picts](https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/), Scots, [Saxons](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saxons/), and [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) attack the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/).
- **408 CE**: [Alaric](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alaric/) I the [Visigoth](https://www.worldhistory.org/visigoth/) besieges [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). As ransom, Rome pays 5,000 pounds of [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/), 30,000 pounds of [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/), 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of [pepper](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pepper/).
- **455 CE**: [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) sack [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **486 CE**: [Clovis I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Clovis_I/) of the [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) defeats the Romans in [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). Founding of the Frankish kingdom.
- **488 CE - 493 CE**: [Theodoric the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theodoric_the_Great/) of the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **507 CE**: Clovis defeats the [Visigoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/visigoth/) and drives them into the Iberian peninsula.
- **534 CE**: Justinian of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers the [Vandal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) kingdom in [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **536 CE - 562 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **554 CE**: [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers southern [Iberia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/iberia/).
- **607 CE - 627 CE**: East [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **646 CE**: The Arab Muslims [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) under Caliph [Umar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Umar/).
- **712 CE**: Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquers northern [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/).
## Questions & Answers
### What is Warfare?
Warfare is the systematic, organized waging of armed conflict between nations or states.
### When was the first recorded war?
The first recorded war was between Sumer and Elam in ancient Mesopotamia in 2700 BCE. Sumer won.
### What were the ancient causes of warfare?
Initially, wars were waged for resources such as land and water rights.
### Who created the first model of the standing army?
Sargon of Akkad created the first model of the standing army in Mesopotamia circa 2334 BCE.
## External Links
- [Celtic Warriors](http://www.ancientmilitary.com/celtic-warriors.htm)
- [Account Suspended](http://arkaion-bellum.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi)
- [3 Battles That Changed World History – And India](https://2ndlook.wordpress.com/2009/02/28/3-battles-that-changed-world-history-and-india/)
- [Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.08.15](http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-08-15.html)
- [Glossary](http://members.tripod.com/~S_van_Dorst/glossary.html)
- [Ancient Military History, warriors, warfare and weapons](http://www.ancientmilitary.com/)
- [How to make an Iron Age shield (out of bark) | British Museum](https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/how-make-iron-age-shield-out-bark)
## Cite This Work
### APA
Mark, J. J. (2009, September 02). Warfare: The Development of Resources for Armed Conflict. *World History Encyclopedia*.
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Warfare: The Development of Resources for Armed Conflict." *World History Encyclopedia*, September 02, 2009. .
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Warfare: The Development of Resources for Armed Conflict." *World History Encyclopedia*, 02 Sep 2009, .
## License & Copyright
Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 02 September 2009. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.