--- title: 戰爭 author: Joshua J. Mark translator: 晚生姓高 source: https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/zh/1-154/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2023-07-20 --- # 戰爭 _作者： [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_ _译者： [晚生姓高](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/ezswvyqf)_ [](https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/zh/1-22386/)[](https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/zh/2-2409/)戰爭通常被理解為主權國家,或國家之間,利用軍事力量和戰略,有控制地、有系統地發動武裝衝突，直到在戰場上擊敗對手，或者在面臨不可避免的破壞,和更大的生命損失的情況下,尋求和平。 歷史上第一場有記錄的戰爭是公元前 2700 年蘇美爾和埃拉姆,在美索不達米亞發生的戰爭，蘇美爾取得了勝利，而第一個結束國家間敵對狀態的和平條約,是埃及帝國的拉美西斯二世（大帝）和哈圖西里三世之間簽署的, 公元前1258年赫梯帝國的統治者。 在這兩種情況下，都發動了戰爭並簽署了條約，以解決政治和文化衝突。 縱觀有記載的歷史，戰爭一直是人類的一部分，並且總是由人類社區固有的部落心態,以及他們對另一個不同的“部落”的恐懼或不信任造成，這在另一個地區、文化或宗教的人民中表現出來。 ### 戰爭與中國的統一 部落心態導致戰爭的一個例子,可以在戰國時期（公元前476-221年）的中國看到，當時有七個部落國家爭奪土地的最高控制權。 作為中國（儘管不是統一的中國）政治權威所在地的周朝（公元前1046-226）正在衰落，每個獨立的國家都認識到獲得霸權的機會。 由於每個國家都採用相同的戰術,並遵守相同的戰爭政策，因此沒有一個國家能夠,比其他國家獲得顯著的優勢。 中國歷史學家司馬遷寫道，這一時期的中國人除了一代又一代的戰爭之外，沒有其他的生活。 中國的第一次軍事衝突是隨著夏朝（約公元前 2070-1600 年）的崛起而記錄的，但一旦政治爭端得到解決，和平就來臨。 然而戰國時期，國家卻處於不斷的動亂之中。 這種情況被秦王嬴政解決了，他在戰爭中有效地實施了全面戰爭的概念，以至於在公元前230年至公元前221年間，他完全征服了其他國家。 嬴政在秦朝統一了中國，並自稱為始皇帝，即秦始皇，這是他最為人所知的稱號。 他利用戰爭來解決長期存在的政治爭端，成為一般使用戰爭的範例，無論是規模大小。 ### 勝利者與戰敗者 古代的戰爭方式與今天的標準不同。 戰敗者可以肯定等待他們的,是奴役或即決處決。 當亞歷山大大帝於公元前 332 年 7 月占領腓尼基城市提爾時，他殺害了大部分人口，並將其餘人口賣為奴隸。 公元前 52 年 9 月，尤利烏斯·凱撒在阿萊西亞擊敗了韋辛格托里克斯和他的高盧部落，駐軍被賣為奴隸，凱撒軍團中的每個人都收到了一名高盧人作為私人奴隸作為禮物。 僅軍團士兵就俘虜了超過 40,000 名高盧人作為奴隸，這還不包括那些被賣給與凱撒講和並在阿萊西亞之後結盟的部落的人。 當屋大維在公元前 31 年的亞克興海戰中擊敗馬克·安東尼和克利奧帕特拉時，類似的命運等待著那些不幸戰死的被征服者。 這種相同的戰爭模式可以追溯到阿卡德大帝薩爾貢（公元前 2334-2279 年），他將美索不達米亞統一在阿卡德帝國之下，並在鐵器時代（公元前 1000-500 年）由亞述帝國完善。 亞述人是第一個將被征服的民眾大規模驅逐到其他地區並由自己的人民在該地區重新定居的政治力量。 戰敗城市或州的公民要么被賣為奴隸，要么被迫遷移到征服者統治的地區或地區。 [ ![Battle of Pharsalus](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2685.gif?v=1755518534) 法薩盧斯之戰 Wikipedia User: Kirill Lokshin (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2685/battle-of-pharsalus/ "Battle of Pharsalus")### 戰術與陣型 在戰場上發動戰爭的軍隊最初由步兵部隊組成，他們使用長矛、盾牌以及某種形式的防彈衣和頭盔,與敵軍交戰並與之接近。 隨著時間的推移，軍隊發展到包括突擊部隊（以緊密隊形與敵方戰線交戰的步兵）和輕步兵（以較鬆散隊形的步兵，向敵人發射遠程導彈且機動性更強）。 從公元前 3000 年的蘇美爾直到羅馬帝國時期，幾乎所有軍隊都採用了方陣陣型。 馬其頓的腓力二世或其子亞歷山大大帝等人的倡議,對方陣進行了多次修改，但基本的陣型及其有效性保持不變。 隨著馬的引入，騎兵部隊出現，戰車也頻繁地在戰鬥中使用。 隨著軍隊規模的擴大，以及歷史確立了帝國的先例，越來越多的資源被用於戰鬥，包括使用駱駝等動物（居魯士大帝在公元前 546 年的 Thymbra 戰役中出色地運用了駱駝）或 大象（漢尼拔在公元前 218-201 年的第二次佈匿戰爭中著名）甚至是貓，波斯的岡比西斯二世在公元前 525 年的佩盧西烏姆戰役中,使用貓擊敗了埃及。 波斯國王意識到埃及人對貓的崇拜，因此他的軍隊在盾牌上畫了貓的圖像，並進一步將貓和其他埃及人,神聖的動物驅趕到前線。 埃及人不願冒傷害任何動物,而招致神的憤怒，於是向波斯軍隊投降。 有記載的歷史上的第一次海戰是在大約公元 100 年，赫梯國王蘇皮盧利烏馬二世 (Suppiluliuma II) 的船隻,與來自塞浦路斯島的入侵艦隊之間進行的。 公元前 1210 年。 然而，在此之前毫無疑問，船隻已用於戰鬥，記錄表明阿卡德的薩爾貢在戰爭中使用了,可以拆卸並運載到陸地上的船隻。 輕步兵部隊能夠對敵方遠程造成嚴重傷害，最終啟發了使用大型武器達到相同目的的砲兵部隊。 羅馬軍隊的火砲有天蠍座（大型弩）、弩砲（類似於彈射器）、投石機（小型弩砲）和彈射器。 當羅馬軍隊征服世界時，所有戰術和所有可用於戰爭的資源都被軍團利用了。 [ ![Royal Lion Hunt on Chariot](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/106.jpg?v=1748079305-1727081376) 皇家戰車獵獅 Jan van der Crabben (Photographer) (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/106/royal-lion-hunt-on-chariot/ "Royal Lion Hunt on Chariot")### 古代軍隊和武器 戰爭策略和戰爭方法因國家、統治者和時代而異。 在古埃及，軍隊配備了簡單的矛和皮盾，但到了大約 公元前1570年，當埃及人擊敗佔領下埃及的外國喜克索斯人時，他們巧妙地使用了馬匹和戰車、防彈衣、複合弓以及青銅赫佩什劍。 具有諷刺意味的是，正是喜克索斯人自己,給了埃及人打敗他們的技術（特別是複合弓、錫青銅劍和戰車）。 在喜克索斯人抵達埃及之前，軍隊大部分裝備的武器與他們在古王國（約公元前 2613-2181 年）使用的武器相同。 首先是喜克索斯人，然後是赫梯人，武器裝備的進步導致了新王國（約公元前 1570k-1069 年）職業戰鬥力量的發展，新王國創建並維持了埃及帝國。 波斯帝國青睞裝甲騎兵、重裝步兵（其中的精銳被稱為“萬神不朽”）和弓箭手，他們會向敵軍傾瀉箭雨，在隊伍中製造“敬畏和奇蹟”。 古希臘人依靠裝甲步兵（重裝步兵）和方陣陣型，即由手持長矛和互鎖盾牌的,密集士兵組成的部隊。 在希臘，無論參與哪個城邦，大部分戰鬥都是由步兵進行的，值得注意的例外是,公元前 480 年的薩拉米斯海戰。 馬其頓的腓力二世將薩里薩（一種長矛）引入方陣，極大地提高了陣型在戰場上的效能，腓力二世的兒子亞歷山大大帝在自己的戰役中,在步兵方陣中使用了薩里薩，但也使用了輕型 以及重型騎兵和戰車,來發揮作用。 羅馬帝國的三線軍團，配備防彈衣、長矛、盾牌和短劍，取代了方陣陣型，並在騎兵的支援下，證明了自己是繼亞歷山大大帝之後古代最強大的戰鬥力量。 每一種古代文化都或多或少地遵循相同的開發基本武器的基本模式（通常基於他們在狩獵中使用的工具），然後隨著不同部落成員之間的接觸和衝突而得到改進。 隨著部落成為具有不同利益的文化和文明，衝突變得更加普遍，武器和戰爭也變得更加複雜，以便以更少的努力取得更大的成果。 無論文化或時期如何，政府通常對戰爭表現出比國家生活的幾乎任何其他方面更大的興趣並付出更多的努力。 #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## 参考文献 - [Anglim, S. *FIGHTING TECHNIQUES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 3000 BCE-500CE.* Amber Books, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1909160466/) - [Bunson, M. *Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt.* Gramercy, 1999.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0517203804/) - [Davis, P.K. *100 Decisive Battles.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195143663/) - [Durant, W. *Our Oriental Heritage.* Simon & Schuster, 1954.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00005WJGO/) - [The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats](https://www.ancient.eu.com/article/43/ "The Battle of Pelusium: A Victory Decided by Cats"), accessed 15 May 2020. - [The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch](http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html "The Internet Classics Archive | Antony by Plutarch"), accessed 1 Dec 2016. - [Worthington, I. *Alexander the Great.* Longman, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/140580162X/) ## 关于作者 约书亚·J·马克（Joshua J. Mark）是世界历史百科全书的联合创始人兼内容总监。他曾在纽约马里斯特学院（Marist College）担任教授，教授历史、哲学、文学和写作课程。他游历广泛，曾在希腊和德国生活。 - [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339) ## 时间轴 - **2400 BCE**: First use of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) chariots in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). - **c. 2240 BCE**: [Naram-Sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/) of [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) campaigns against the Amorites in northern [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/). - **2200 BCE - 1500 BCE**: The [Minoan Civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) flourishes on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/), [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/). King Minos establishes the first navy in the region. - **2193 BCE - 2154 BCE**: [Gutian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) invasion topples [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/). - **c. 1750 BCE**: [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) conquers [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/). - **1595 BCE**: [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) under Mursilli I sack [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/), ending [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) rule. - **c. 1458 BCE**: [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) and Megiddo lead a Canaanite alliance against the [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) invasion by [Thutmose III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thutmose_III/). - **c. 1457 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Megiddo: [Thutmose III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thutmose_III/) of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) defeats a coalition of [Canaan](https://www.worldhistory.org/canaan/), [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/), [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/), and Megiddo led by Durusha, king of Kadesh. - **1307 BCE - 1275 BCE**: Reign of Assyrian King [Adad Nirari I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Adad_Nirari_I/), [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) becomes vassal state. - **1258 BCE**: The Treaty of [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) between Egyptians and [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/). The world's first peace treaty. - **c. 1250 BCE**: [Trojan War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Trojan_War/), according to [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/). - **c. 1200 BCE**: [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) invade the [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/). - **c. 1187 BCE**: [Kadesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kadesh/) is destroyed by the [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) and subsequently vanishes from history. - **1178 BCE**: [Ramesses](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/ramesses/) III defends [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) from the [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/) on the shores at [Xois](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xois/), defeating them completely. - **1115 BCE - 1076 BCE**: Reign of [Tiglath-Pileser I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiglath_Pileser_I/) of [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) who conquers [Phoenicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/) and revitalizes the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). - **722 BCE**: [Israel](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Israel/) is conquered by [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/). - **c. 700 BCE**: [Iron Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Iron_Age/) begins in [Scotland](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scotland/). - **671 BCE**: Second [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) Campaign, Assyrian army successfully captures [Memphis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Memphis_(Ancient_Egypt)/) and conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/). - **671 BCE**: [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) is conquered by [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/). - **667 BCE - 665 BCE**: [Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/) wages [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) to put down rebellions. - **653 BCE**: [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) expels Assyrians. - **c. 650 BCE - c. 350 BCE**: Hoplites are the major protagonists in [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) land [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/). - **648 BCE**: [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) between [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) and the Elamites. - **586 BCE - 572 BCE**: [Nebuchadnezzar II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nebuchadnezzar_II/) of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) besieges [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/), unsuccessfully. - **28 May 585 BCE**: A [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) between [Media](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/media/) and [Lydia](https://www.worldhistory.org/lydia/) broke off immediately as a result of a total eclipse of the sun and the two armies made peace. The eclipse was successfully predicted by [Thales of Miletus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thales_of_Miletus/). - **580 BCE - 376 BCE**: [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) and [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) fight for dominance in [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/). - **535 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Alalia. Carthaginian navy, in alliance with [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/), defeated [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) ships off the island of Corsica. - **525 BCE**: [Cambyses II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cambyses_II/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) takes the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Pelusium, conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/). - **525 BCE - 404 BCE**: [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) conquers [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/). - **512 BCE - 506 BCE**: The Wu Chu wars in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) between the States of Wu and Chu. - **506 BCE**: The [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Boju at which the Wu forces under [Sun-Tzu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sun-Tzu/) defeated the Chu. - **498 BCE - 493 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the Latins. - **11 Sep 490 BCE**: A combined force of [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) hoplites defeat the Persians at [Marathon](https://www.worldhistory.org/marathon/). - **485 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is destroyed by [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/), King of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). - **c. 481 BCE - 221 BCE**: The [Warring States Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Warring_States_Period/) in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), suggested time-period for composition of [The Art of War](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Art_of_War/). - **Aug 480 BCE**: The indecisive [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Artemision between the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) and Persian fleets of [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/). The Greeks withdraw to [Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Salamis/). - **Aug 480 BCE**: [Battle of Thermopylae](https://www.worldhistory.org/thermopylae/). 300 Spartans under King [Leonidas](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Leonidas/) and other [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) allies hold back the Persians led by [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/) for three days but are defeated. - **Sep 480 BCE**: [Battle of Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Salamis/) where the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) naval fleet led by [Themistocles](https://www.worldhistory.org/Themistocles/) defeats the invading armada of [Xerxes I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). - **479 BCE**: [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/)' Persian forces are defeated by [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) forces at [Plataea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Plataea/) effectively ending [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/)'s imperial ambitions in [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/). - **c. 475 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) defeat the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) at the Ticino River. - **460 BCE - 445 BCE**: First [Peloponnesian War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/). - **448 BCE**: [Pericles](https://www.worldhistory.org/pericles/) leads the Athenian forces in the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of [Delphi](https://www.worldhistory.org/delphi/). - **431 BCE - 404 BCE**: The 2nd [Peloponnesian War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/) between [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) (the [Delian League](https://www.worldhistory.org/Delian_League/) and the [Peloponnesian League](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_League/)) which involved all of [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/). - **c. 430 BCE - 415 BCE**: The *Histories* of [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/) is published. The work is divided into nine chapters, each dedicated to one of the [Muses](https://www.worldhistory.org/muse/). - **425 BCE**: [Pylos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pylos/) campaign, under Cleon and [Demosthenes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Demosthenes/)' command [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) defeats [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Pylos. - **413 BCE**: The Athenian expedition in [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) ends in disastrous defeat and the Athenian generals [Nicias](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nicias/) and [Demosthenes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Demosthenes/) are executed. - **410 BCE**: [Alcibiades](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alcibiades/) leads the Athenian fleet to victory over [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Cyzicus. - **c. 407 BCE**: The Athenian fleet is defeated by [Lysander](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lysander/) of [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Notium. - **404 BCE**: End of the [Peloponnesian war](https://www.worldhistory.org/Peloponnesian_War/), [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) defeated By [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) at Aigospotamoi, Rule of [the Thirty Tyrants](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Thirty_Tyrants/) in Athens. - **396 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) defeat an [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) army at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Melpum. Afterwards the Celts heavily settle all over the Po Valley. - **396 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) expansion begins with the capture of [Veii](https://www.worldhistory.org/Veii/) from the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/). - **395 BCE - 386 BCE**: The Corinthian Wars between [Sparta](https://www.worldhistory.org/sparta/) and an alliance of [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/), [Corinth](https://www.worldhistory.org/corinth/), [Argos](https://www.worldhistory.org/argos/), Boeotia and [Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thebes/). - **c. 390 BCE**: "Gallic Catastrophe:" [Brennus](https://www.worldhistory.org/brennus/) of the Senones defeats the Romans at Allia, and subsequently sacks [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **343 BCE - 341 BCE**: First Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ([Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) vs. Samnites). - **342 BCE**: [Philip II](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Philip_II/) leads a military expedition against the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/). - **338 BCE**: The first [battle of Chaeronea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Chaeronea/). [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) defeats the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) alliance directed against him, led by [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and [Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thebes/). - **334 BCE - 323 BCE**: Period of the conquests of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/). - **5 Nov 333 BCE**: [Battle of Issus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Issus/). [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) is victorious against [Darius](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/darius/) III of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). - **May 330 BCE**: [Persepolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/persepolis/) is burned and looted by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/). - **326 BCE - 304 BCE**: Second Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **323 BCE**: [Death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/). - **300 BCE**: Sarmatians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/). - **298 BCE - 290 BCE**: Third Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). Victory for [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), peace with the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/). - **297 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites join forces and defeat the Romans at Camertium. - **c. 295 BCE**: In a [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) lasting all day, Romans narrowly defeat a force of [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites at Sentinum. - **285 BCE - 282 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). Rome's dominance in central Italy is secured. - **284 BCE**: Gauls of the Insubres and Boii tribes defeat the Romans at [Arretium](https://www.worldhistory.org/arretium/). - **283 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) decisively defeats the Senones at Picenum. - **280 BCE - 272 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) against [Tarentum](https://www.worldhistory.org/tarentum/). [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Tarentum. Rome's dominance in lower [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) is secured. - **264 BCE - 241 BCE**: [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) cedes [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **c. 250 BCE - c. 200 CE**: Originally a Celtiberian weapon, the [Gladius Hispaniensis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gladius_Hispaniensis/) was commonly used by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) soldiers for more than four centuries. - **229 BCE - 228 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) fights Illyrian pirates. Queen Teuta pays tribute to Rome. - **222 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Cisalpine [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/) (modern-day Provence, France). - **c. 220 BCE**: [Gortyn](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gortyn/) allies with [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/) to defeat Lyttos on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **Aug 216 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle of Cannae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Cannae/), the worst defeat in [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) history. - **214 BCE - 205 BCE**: First Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats Philip V of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/). - **206 BCE**: Chinese Qin [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) collapses following the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of emperor [Shi Huangti](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shi_Huangdi/). Civil [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) begins. - **204 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) sails to North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) in the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/). - **202 BCE**: The [Battle of Gaixia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Gaixia/) in which the [Han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) forces defeat the Chu. - **c. 200 BCE**: Beginning of the Greco-Bactrian conquests in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **200 BCE - 196 BCE**: Second Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory. - **193 BCE**: The Boii are defeated by the Romans, suffering, according to [Livy](https://www.worldhistory.org/livy/), 14,000 dead. - **190 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Magnesia ad Sipylum, disastrous defeat for [Antiochos](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/antiochos/) III against Romans. - **172 BCE - 168 BCE**: Third Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Perseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perseus/) of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) challenges [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and is defeated. - **168 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) at [Battle of Pydna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Pydna/). - **149 BCE - 146 BCE**: [Third Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Punic_War/). - **146 BCE**: End of the [Third Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Punic_War/). [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) is destroyed and its lands become the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) province [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **133 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) captures Numantia. End of Iberian resistance. - **129 BCE**: Parthians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). The [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/) to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) is now controlled by the Parthians. - **113 BCE**: Romans defeated at Noreia by the [Cimbri](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cimbri/). - **88 BCE - 63 BCE**: Mithridates of Pontus fights three wars to free [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) from [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **86 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Sulla](https://www.worldhistory.org/sulla/) sacks [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and the port of [Piraeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Piraeus/). - **63 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) defeats the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) Antiochus XIII and incorporates [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) as a province of the [Roman empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). - **58 BCE**: [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) attacks the Helvetii while on migration and defeats them. - **58 BCE - 51 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). - **57 BCE**: A [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) under [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) narrowly defeats an army of Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui. - **56 BCE**: The navies of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and the Veneti Gauls clash resulting in a [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory. This is the first recorded naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) in the Atlantic Ocean. - **55 BCE - 54 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s expeditions in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **52 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) is defeated at Gergovia by [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/). - **52 BCE**: After becoming trapped and besieged at Alesia, [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/) surrenders to [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/). - **27 BCE - 19 BCE**: Cantabrian Wars: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the Iberian Penninsula. - **9 CE**: The Rhine River is established as the boundary between the Latin and German speaking worlds, following the defeat of the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/), under the command of Varus, at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of the Teutoburg Forest. - **43 CE**: [Claudius](https://www.worldhistory.org/claudius/) commences the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **43 CE - 47 CE**: Romans [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) South [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) and claim the territory as part of [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). - **60 CE - 61 CE**: [Boudicca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boudicca/)'s Revolt in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **75 CE - 77 CE**: Romans defeat the last of the Northern tribes; [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) complete. - **83 CE**: The [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Mons Graupius in which Agricola defeats Calgacus of the [Picts](https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/). - **101 CE - 106 CE**: [Trajan](https://www.worldhistory.org/trajan/) conquers [Dacia](https://www.worldhistory.org/dacia/). - **167 CE - 180 CE**: Marcomannic Wars. - **192 CE**: Emperor [Commodus](https://www.worldhistory.org/commodus/) is murdered, civil [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ensues (until 197 CE). - **195 CE**: First Parthian [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **197 CE - 198 CE**: Second Parthian [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **367 CE**: [Picts](https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/), Scots, [Saxons](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saxons/), and [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) attack the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). - **408 CE**: [Alaric](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alaric/) I the [Visigoth](https://www.worldhistory.org/visigoth/) besieges [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). As ransom, Rome pays 5,000 pounds of [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/), 30,000 pounds of [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/), 4,000 silken tunics, 3,000 hides dyed scarlet, and 3,000 pounds of [pepper](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pepper/). - **455 CE**: [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) sack [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **486 CE**: [Clovis I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Clovis_I/) of the [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) defeats the Romans in [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). Founding of the Frankish kingdom. - **488 CE - 493 CE**: [Theodoric the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theodoric_the_Great/) of the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **507 CE**: Clovis defeats the [Visigoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/visigoth/) and drives them into the Iberian peninsula. - **534 CE**: Justinian of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers the [Vandal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) kingdom in [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **536 CE - 562 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **554 CE**: [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers southern [Iberia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/iberia/). - **607 CE - 627 CE**: East [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). - **646 CE**: The Arab Muslims [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) under Caliph [Umar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Umar/). - **712 CE**: Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquers northern [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). ## 外部链接 - [Celtic Warriors](http://www.ancientmilitary.com/celtic-warriors.htm) - [Account Suspended](http://arkaion-bellum.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi) - [3 Battles That Changed World History – And India](https://2ndlook.wordpress.com/2009/02/28/3-battles-that-changed-world-history-and-india/) - [Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.08.15](http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-08-15.html) - [Glossary](http://members.tripod.com/~S_van_Dorst/glossary.html) - [Ancient Military History, warriors, warfare and weapons](http://www.ancientmilitary.com/) - [How to make an Iron Age shield (out of bark) | British Museum](https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/how-make-iron-age-shield-out-bark) ## 引用本文 ### APA Mark, J. J. (2023, July 20). 戰爭. (. 晚生姓高, 翻译). *World History Encyclopedia*. ### Chicago Mark, Joshua J.. "戰爭." 翻译： 晚生姓高. *World History Encyclopedia*, July 20, 2023. . ### MLA Mark, Joshua J.. "戰爭." 翻译： 晚生姓高. *World History Encyclopedia*, 20 Jul 2023, . ## 许可与版权 提交人： [晚生姓高](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/ezswvyqf/ "User Page: 晚生姓高"), 发表于 20 July 2023. 请查阅原始来源以获取版权信息。 请注意，从本页面链接的内容可能具有不同的许可条款。