---
title: Literature: The Artistic Expression of the Human Experience
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-05-03
---

# Literature: The Artistic Expression of the Human Experience

_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_

Literature (from the Latin *Littera* meaning "letters" and referring to an acquaintance with the written word) is the written work of a specific [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/), sub-culture, [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), [philosophy](https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/), or the study of such written work which may appear in poetry or in prose. Literature is the artistic expression of the human experience and the works labeled as such, although they bear the stamp of the culture that produced them, are remarkably similar in the tales they tell.

[Writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) originated in the region of Southern [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/), in the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/), in circa 3600/3500 BCE and flourished in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), later in [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) (the written word having been imported there by the [Phoenicians](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/)) and from there, to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).

Writing seems to have originated independently in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) from divination practices and also independently in Mesoamerica and elsewhere. The earliest writing system in Mesopotamia (known as proto-[cuneiform](https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/)) dealt with the practical matters of commerce but, by circa 2600 BCE, had become sophisticated enough to produce literature and, by circa 2100, the great *Epic of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/)*, the oldest extant literary work in the world.

The first author of literature in the world, known by name, was the [Akkadian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/akkadian/) high-priestess of the city of [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/) in Mesopotamia, [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/) (circa 2300 BCE) who wrote hymns in praise of the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) goddess [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/) (later known as [Ishtar](https://www.worldhistory.org/ishtar/)). Much of the early literature from Mesopotamia concerns the activities of the gods but, in time, humans came to be featured as the main characters in works including *Gilgamesh* and the cycle of poems known as the [Matter of Aratta](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2164/matter-of-aratta/), which includes, *Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana,* and *Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave* (composed circa 2112-circa 2004 BCE).

For the purposes of study, Literature is divided into the categories of fiction or non-fiction today but these are often arbitrary decisions as ancient literature, as understood by those who wrote the tales down, as well as those who heard them spoken or sung pre-literacy, was not understood in the same way as it is in the modern-day. To an ancient audience, "truth" was not synonymous with "facts" but could be understood through what a modern audience would call "myth" and "fable."

### The Truth in Literature

[Homer](https://www.worldhistory.org/homer/)'s soaring odes to the grandeur of the Grecian fleet sailing for [Troy](https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/) or [Odysseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/odysseus/)'s journey across the wine-dark sea were as real to listeners as his descriptions of the sorceress [Circe](https://www.worldhistory.org/Circe/), the [cyclops](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyclops/) Polyphemus, or the Sirens. Those tales which today are regarded as myth were then considered as true and sacred as any of the writings contained in the Judeo-Christian [Bible](https://www.worldhistory.org/bible/) or the Muslim [Quran](https://www.worldhistory.org/quran/) are to believers.

Designations such as fiction and non-fiction are fairly recent labels applied to written works. The ancient mind understood that, quite often, truth may be apprehended through a fable about a fox and some unattainable grapes. The modern concern with the truth of a story would not have concerned anyone listening to one of Aesop's tales; what mattered was what the story was trying to convey.

Even so, there was a value placed on accuracy in recording actual events (as ancient criticism of the historian [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/)' accounts of events shows). Early literary works were usually didactic in approach and had an underlying (or often overt) religious purpose such as in the Sumerian *Enuma Elish* of 1120 BCE or the *[Theogony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theogony/)* of the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) writer [Hesiod](https://www.worldhistory.org/hesiod/) of the 8th century BCE.

One of the earliest known literary works is the Sumerian/Babylonian *Epic of Gilgamesh* from circa 2100 BCE which deals with themes of heroism, pride, nationality, friendship, disappointment, [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/), and the quest for eternal life. Whether what happened in the tale of Gilgamesh "actually happened" was immaterial to the writer and to the listener. What mattered was what the audience was able to take away from the tale.

The best example of this is a genre known as [Mesopotamian naru literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamian_Naru_Literature/) in which historical figures feature in fictional plots. Among the best-known works from this genre are the poems *The [Curse of Agade](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/748/the-curse-of-agade/)* and *The [Legend of Cutha](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1869/the-legend-of-cutha/)*, both featuring the great Akkadian king [Naram-Sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/) (reign 2254-2218 BCE), grandson of King [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (reign 2334-2279 BCE, father of Enheduanna). Both of these works have Naram-Sin behaving in ways which are contradicted by physical evidence and other, more factual, writings.

The purpose of naru literature, however, was not to relate what "really" happened but to emphasize an important moral, cultural, or religious point. Mesopotamian naru literature is today regarded as the earliest example of historical fiction, which teaches while it entertains.

### Examples of Ancient Literature

*The [Pyramid](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyramid/) Texts* of Egypt, also considered literature, tell of the journey of the soul to the afterlife in the [Field of Reeds](https://www.worldhistory.org/Field_of_Reeds/) and these works presented the subject as absolute truth. [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) religious culture was based on the reality of an afterlife and the role the gods played in one's eternal journey, of which one's life on earth was only one part. Even though an ancient Egyptian writer could not know what happened after death, the afterlife journey was presented as factual to support the collective cultural understanding of eternal life and how one should behave while on earth.

Homer's *[Iliad](https://www.worldhistory.org/iliad/)* recounts the famous ten-year [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) between the Greeks and the Trojans while his *[Odyssey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Odyssey/)* tells of the great hero Odysseus's journey back home after the war to his beloved wife Penelope of Ithaca and this, like the other works mentioned, reinforced cultural values without a concern for what may or may not have happened concerning the war with Troy or the hero's journey home. The human experience with the challenges of life became the subject of literature, and continued to be.

The story told in the biblical *Book of Exodus* is considered historical truth by many today, but originally could have been meant to be interpreted as liberation from bondage in a spiritual sense as it was written to empower the worshipers of [Yahweh](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yahweh/), encouraged them to resist the temptations of the indigenous peoples of [Canaan](https://www.worldhistory.org/canaan/), and elevated the audience's perception of themselves as a chosen people of an all-powerful [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/).

*The Song of Songs* from the Hebrew scripture of the Tanakh, immortalizes the passionate love between a man and a woman (interpreted by Christians, much later, as the relationship between Christ and the Church) and the sacred aspect of such a relationship. The Indian epic *[Mahabharata](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mahabharata/)* relates the birth of a nation while the *[Ramayana](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Ramayana/)* tells the tale of the great [Rama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rama/)'s rescue of his abducted wife Sita from the evil Ravna. The *[Shahnameh](https://www.worldhistory.org/shahnameh/)*, the epic "Book of Kings" of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/), relates the struggles and triumphs of its heroes in the same way as those of ancient Mesopotamia did theirs.

The works found in the [Library of Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Ashurbanipal/) in the ruins of ancient [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/) record the heroic deeds of the gods, goddesses, and the struggles and triumphs of heroic kings of ancient Mesopotamia such as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and Gilgamesh. Scholar [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) [Noah](https://www.worldhistory.org/Noah/) Kramer points out that the early Sumerian works - and, indeed, Sumerian culture as a whole - resonates in the modern day on many levels and is especially apparent in literature. Kramer writes:

> It is still apparent in a [Mosaic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mosaic/) [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) and a Solomonic proverb, in the tears of Job and a [Jerusalem](https://www.worldhistory.org/jerusalem/) lament, in the sad tale of the dying man-god, in a Hesiodic cosmogony and a [Hindu](https://www.worldhistory.org/hinduism/) myth, in an Aesopic fable and a Euclidean theorem, in a zodiacal sign and a heraldic design. (5)

### Originality in Ancient Literature

Most early works were written down in the poetical metre which the writer had heard repeated over time but the date between original composition and the written form are impossible to discern and, therefore, the dating of such pieces as the *Enuma Elish* or the *Odyssey* is difficult in that they were finally recorded in writing many years after their oral composition.

It is also difficult to tell how "true" an ancient literary work might be as the great value which modern-day readers and critics place on "originality" in literature was unknown to ancient people. The very idea of according a work of the imagination of an individual with any degree of respect would never have occurred to anyone of the ancient world. Stories were re-tellings of the feats of great heroes, of the gods, the goddesses, or of creation, as in Hesiod and Homer.

In time, however, so great was the respect for what today would be called "non-fiction", that Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-1155) claimed his famous *History of the Kings of [Briton](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ancient_Britain/)* (which he largely made up) was actually a translation from an earlier text he had "discovered" and Sir [Thomas Malory](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thomas_Malory/) (1405-1471) famed as the author of the *Morte D'Arthur*, denied any original contributions to the work he compiled from earlier authors, even though today it is clear that he added much to the source material he drew from.

This literary tradition of ascribing an original work to earlier, seemingly-authoritative, sources is famously exemplified in [the gospels](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Gospels/) of the Christian [New Testament](https://www.worldhistory.org/New_Testament/) in that the gospel narratives of Matthew, [Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Mark/), Luke, and John, understood by many believers to be eye-witness accounts of the ministry of [Jesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/), were written much later by unknown authors who chose names associated with Jesus' earthly ministry to lend authoritative weight to their work.

Although literature began as poetry, today it encompasses poetry, drama, prose, folklore, epic tale, personal narrative, poetry, history, biography, satire, philosophical dialogues, essays, legends and myths, among others. [Plato](https://www.worldhistory.org/plato/)'s *Dialogues*, while not the first to combine philosophical themes with dramatic form, were the first to make drama work well in the cause of philosophical inquiry.

Later writers drew on these earlier works for inspiration (as [Virgil](https://www.worldhistory.org/virgil/) did in composing his *[Aeneid](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Aeneid/)*, based on Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey*) and this tradition of borrowing, of embellishing upon the truth to narrate the truth of the human condition through story and myth and fable, continued up through the time of [Ferdowsi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ferdowsi/), of Murasaki Shikibu, of Chaucer and then Shakespeare, and on up to the present day.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Black, J. , et. al. *The Literature of Ancient Sumer.* Oxford University Press, 2005.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199263116/)
- [Durant, W. *Caesar and Christ.* Simon & Schuster, 1980.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0671115006/)
- [Hamilton, E. *The Greek Way.* W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0393310779/)
- [Hesiod. *Hesiod.* Loeb Classical Library, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0674996224/)
- [Homer. *The Iliad and The Odyssey Translated by Samuel Butler.* Buki Editions, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B001YQG44A/)
- [Jonker, G. *The Topography of Remembrance.* Brill Publishing, 1995.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/9004101624/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.* University of Chicago Press, 1971.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0226452387/)
- [Kriwaczek, P. *Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.* St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1250054168/)
- [Sandars, N. K. *The Epic of Gilgamesh.* Penguin Classics, 1973.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B002RI9VZS/)
- [Simpson, W. K. *The Literature of Ancient Egypt.* Yale University Press, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0300099207/)
- [Various Ancient Authors. *Holy Bible, New King James Version.* Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B002R2OFNC/)
- [Wise Bauer, S. *The History of the Ancient World.* W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/039305974X/)

## About the Author

Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)

## Timeline

- **c. 2600 BCE**: Beginning of [literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/) in [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/).
- **c. 2300 BCE**: Life of [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/), daughter of [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/), and world's first author known by name.
- **c. 2100 BCE - c. 1400 BCE**: The tales of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/) written which inform the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- **c. 1900 BCE - c. 1600 BCE**: Composition of The Descent of [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/).
- **c. 1900 BCE - c. 1600 BCE**: The poem "Descent of [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/)" is written.
- **c. 1640 BCE - c. 1700 BCE**: Written form of the Atrahasis myth of the Great Flood.
- **1345 BCE**: The world's first manual on training horses is written by the [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) horse trainer Kikkuli (found in Hattusa).
- **c. 1120 BCE**: Extant copy of the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) Enuma Elish (creation story) is made from much older text.
- **c. 800 BCE - c. 700 BCE**: [Homer](https://www.worldhistory.org/homer/) of [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) writes his *[Iliad](https://www.worldhistory.org/iliad/)* and *[Odyssey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Odyssey/)*.
- **c. 700 BCE**: [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) poet [Hesiod](https://www.worldhistory.org/hesiod/) writes his *[Theogony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theogony/)* and *[Works and Days](https://www.worldhistory.org/Works_and_Days/)*.
- **c. 647 BCE - c. 629 BCE**: Extensive collection of clay tablets acquired known as the [Library of Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Ashurbanipal/) at [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/).
- **c. 500 BCE**: The Indian epic [the Ramayana](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Ramayana/) is composed by the sage Valmiki.
- **c. 400 BCE - c. 200 CE**: The [Bhagavad Gita](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bhagavad_Gita/), part of the [Mahabharata](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mahabharata/), is written at some point between 400 BCE and 200 CE.
- **213 BCE**: The Burning of the Books and the Burying of Philosophers Period in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **c. 205 BCE - 184 BCE**: [Plautus](https://www.worldhistory.org/plautus/) writes his [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) comedy plays.
- **c. 200 BCE**: [Plautus](https://www.worldhistory.org/plautus/)' comedy play Stichus is first performed.
- **c. 191 BCE**: [Plautus](https://www.worldhistory.org/plautus/)' comedy play Pseudolus is first performed.
- **c. 100 BCE**: [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) sutras began to be written down in Pali.
- **59 BCE - 17 CE**: Life of [Livy](https://www.worldhistory.org/livy/).
- **43 BCE - 17 CE**: Life of the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) writer [Ovid](https://www.worldhistory.org/ovid/), author of Metamorphoses.
- **c. 30 BCE - c. 19 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) poet [Virgil](https://www.worldhistory.org/virgil/) writes his [Aeneid](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Aeneid/).
- **23 CE - Aug 79 CE**: Life of [Pliny the Elder](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pliny_the_Elder/).
- **c. 69 CE - c. 130 CE**: Life of [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) biographer [Suetonius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Suetonius/) who wrote 'The Twelve Caesars'.
- **148 CE**: An Shigao is the first [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) translator mentioned in Chinese sources who established a translation centre in the Chinese imperial capital, [Luoyang](https://www.worldhistory.org/Luoyang/).

## Questions & Answers

### What is literature? 
Literature is the artistic expression of the human experience transmitted through written form, although the original work may have been first transmitted orally. 

### When did people start writing literature?
People began writing literature in circa 2600 BCE in Mesopotamia. 

### What is the oldest work of literature in the world?
The Epic of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia is the oldest work of literature in the world, dated to circa 2100 BCE. 

### When did Homer write Iliad and Odyssey?
Homer wrote Iliad and Odyssey in the 8th century BCE.


## External Links

- [The Newly Discovered Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh](http://etc.ancient.eu/exhibitions/giglamesh-enkidu-humbaba-cedar-forest-newest-discovered-tablet-v-epic/)
- [The History of Herodotus by Herodotus](http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html)
- [The Iliad - The Internet Classics Archive](http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.html)
- [The Odyssey - The Internet Classics Archive](http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/odyssey.html)
- [The Theogony of Hesiod](http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/theogony.htm)
- [Inana's descent to the nether world: translation](http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr141.htm)
- [Mahabharata: complete synopsis and notes](http://larryavisbrown.homestead.com/files/xeno.mahabsynop.htm)
- [The Ramayana index](http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rama/)
- [Texts for Ancient History Courses](http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/texts.html)
- [Enmerkar and the lord of Aratta: translation](http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1823.htm)
- [Lugalbanda in the mountain cave: translation](http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1821.htm)
- [The Internet Classics Archive](http://classics.mit.edu/Virgil/aeneid.html)
- [The Epic of Gilgamish Index](http://sacred-texts.com/ane/eog/)
- [The Internet Classics Archive](http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Tacitus.html)
- [Who was the world's first author? - Soraya Field Fiorio](https://ed.ted.com/lessons/who-was-the-world-s-first-author-soraya-field-fiorio)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, J. J. (2009, September 02). Literature: The Artistic Expression of the Human Experience. *World History Encyclopedia*. <https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/>
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Literature: The Artistic Expression of the Human Experience." *World History Encyclopedia*, September 02, 2009. <https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/>.
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Literature: The Artistic Expression of the Human Experience." *World History Encyclopedia*, 02 Sep 2009, <https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/>.

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 02 September 2009. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.