---
title: Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia: Mirroring the Modern World
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/article/680/daily-life-in-ancient-mesopotamia/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-02-17
---
# Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia: Mirroring the Modern World
_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_
Daily life in ancient [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) cannot be described in the same way one would describe life in ancient [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) or [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/). Mesopotamia was never a single, unified [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/), not even under the [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) of [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (the Great, reign 2334-2279 BCE). The region was comprised of many ethnicities and kingdoms that differed significantly from each other.
Generally speaking, though, from the rise of the [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) circa 4500 BCE to the downfall of [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/) in 1750 BCE, the people of the regions of Mesopotamia did live their lives in similar ways. The civilizations of Mesopotamia placed a great value on the written word. Once [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) was invented, circa 3600/3500 BCE, the scribes seem almost obsessed with recording every facet of their cities' lives, and, because of this, archaeologists and scholars in the present day have a fairly clear understanding of how the people lived and worked.
[  Sumerian Votive Plaque Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2263/sumerian-votive-plaque/ "Sumerian Votive Plaque")The American author Thornton Wilder once wrote, "[Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) once had two million people in it, and all we know about 'em is the names of the kings and some copies of wheat contracts and the sales of slaves" (*Our Town,* Act I). Wilder was writing fiction, of course, not history, and there was much about Mesopotamian history still unknown at the time he wrote his play; still, he was wrong about what the modern world, even the world of his day, knew about the people of Mesopotamia. There is actually far more known about ancient Mesopotamia than just the names of kings and the sales of slaves.
### Population & Social Classes
The population of ancient Mesopotamian cities varied greatly. Circa 2300 BCE, [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) had a population of 50,000, while [Mari](https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/), to the north, had 10,000 and [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) 36,000 (Modelski, 6). The populations of these cities were divided into social classes, which, like societies in every civilization throughout history, were hierarchical. These classes were:
- King and Nobility
- Priests and Priestesses
- Upper Class
- Lower Class
- Slaves
The king of a [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/), region, or [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) was thought to have a special relationship with the gods and to be an intermediary between the world of the divine and the earthly realm. The depth of a king's relationship with his gods, and a [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/)'s pleasure with his rule, was gauged by the success of the territory he ruled over. It was the king's responsibility to care for the people while the high priest (or priestess) cared for the god of a given city. A great king would enlarge his kingdom and make the land prosperous and, by doing so, show that the gods favored him. The priesthood made sure the god was aware of the king's great works and invoke blessings.
[  Bust of a Priest from Uruk Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10267/bust-of-a-priest-from-uruk/ "Bust of a Priest from Uruk")Although many of the regions of Mesopotamia rebelled repeatedly against the rule of [Sargon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/sargon/) of Akkad and the dynasty he founded, he still became a legendary figure because of his successful military conquests and the expanse of his empire. These accomplishments would have meant that, however an individual or community felt about Sargon's rule, he was favored by the gods he served; in his case, [Inanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Inanna/).
The high priest or priestess only served the god of the city and took care of the most important rituals. The lesser priests and priestesses presided over the sacred aspects of daily life in the [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) complex of the [ziggurat](https://www.worldhistory.org/ziggurat/) and officiated at religious services. They were literate and considered adept at interpreting signs and omens. They also served as healers. The first doctors and dentists of Mesopotamia were priestesses who tended to people in the outer court of the temple.
Among the most famous priestesses was [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/) (circa 2300 BCE), daughter of Sargon of Akkad, who served as High Priestess at [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/) and is also the world's first author known by name. Enheduanna would not have served as a healer; her day would have been spent in taking care of the business of the temple and that of the surrounding complex, as well as officiating at ceremonies.
The upper class included merchants who owned their own companies, scribes, private tutors, and, in time, high-ranking military men. Other occupations of the upper class were accountants, architects, astrologers (who were usually priests), and shipwrights. The merchant who owned his own company and did not need to travel was a man of leisure who could enjoy the best [beer](https://www.worldhistory.org/Beer/) in the city in the company of his friends while attended by slaves.
Scribes were highly respected and served at court, in the temple, and in the schools. Every teacher was a scribe, and one of the most important disciplines taught in every Mesopotamian school was writing. The student body was primarily male, although girls could also be sent to school if their fathers wished, and the same was true of slaves if their masters saw a need for it.
Private tutors were also held in high regard and were paid well by the wealthy families of the cities to help their sons excel at their schoolwork. Private tutors not in the employ of a school (which was often run by the temple) were considered men of exceptional intelligence, virtue, and character. They devoted themselves completely to the student, or students, under their tutelage and, if they had a client of high means, lived almost as well as he did.
The lower class was made up of those occupations which kept the city or region actually operating: farmers, artists, musicians, construction workers, canal builders, bakers, basketmakers, butchers, fishermen, cupbearers, brickmakers, brewers, tavern owners, prostitutes, metallurgists, carpenters, perfume makers, potters, jewelry makers, goldsmiths, cart and, later, [chariot](https://www.worldhistory.org/chariot/) drivers, soldiers, sailors, and merchants who worked for another man's company. Of those listed above, prostitutes, perfume makers, jewelry makers, and goldsmiths could also be considered upper-class professions under the right circumstances, such as exceptional skill or finding favor in a wealthy patron or the king.
Any member of the lower class could, however, climb the social ladder. The Assyriologist Jean Bottero notes that, "the town of Kish was ruled not by a king but by an energetic queen called Ku-baba, a former tavern keeper, about whom we know nothing else" (125). For the most part, [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) were relegated to the lower-class jobs, but clearly, they could hold the same esteemed positions as men. Women were the first brewers and tavern keepers and also the first doctors and dentists in ancient Mesopotamia before those occupations proved lucrative and were taken over by men.
[ ![Statue of a Female Sumerian Worshipper from Khafajah [Front View]](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/9674.jpg?v=1618578907) Statue of a Female Sumerian Worshipper from Khafajah \[Front View\] Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9674/statue-of-a-female-sumerian-worshipper-from-khafaj/ "Statue of a Female Sumerian Worshipper from Khafajah [Front View]")The lowest social order was the slaves. One could become a slave in a number of ways: being captured in [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/), selling oneself into slavery to pay off a debt, being sold as punishment for a crime, being kidnapped and sold into slavery in another region, or being sold by a family member to relieve a debt. Slaves had no single ethnicity, nor were they solely employed for manual labor. Slaves kept house, managed large estates, tutored young children, tended horses, served as accountants and skilled jewelry makers, and could be employed in whatever capacity their master saw they had a talent for. A slave who worked diligently for their master could eventually buy their freedom.
### Homes & Furnishings
The king and his court, of course, lived in the [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) and the palace complex. In the cities, homes were built out from the center of the settlement, which was the temple with its ziggurat. Priests lived in the city's center in and around the temple complex. The wealthiest and highest on the social ladder lived closest to the center. The ziggurat, temple, and palace were made of oven-baked bricks and brightly painted, while the homes of the affluent were built of sun-dried bricks, and those of people of lesser means would have been constructed from reeds. Slaves lived in the homes of their masters or nearby in reed houses. It should be noted, however, that these buildings were still considered houses and were not the "huts" so often imagined. Scholar Stephen Bertman describes the construction of these homes, writing:
> To build a simple house, tall marsh plants would be uprooted, gathered together, and tied into tight bundles. After holes were dug in the ground, the bundles of reeds would be inserted, one bundle per hole. After the holes were filled in and firmly packed, pairs of bundles that faced each other would be bent over and tied together at the top, forming an archway. The remaining bundles would then be joined together in similar fashion…Reed mats would then be draped over the top to cover the roof, or hung from a [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) opening to make a door.
> (285)
Bertman continues that, to construct a home of brick,
> Clay from the riverbanks would be mixed with straw for reinforcement and packed into small brick-shaped wooden molds, which would then be lifted off so the mud bricks could dry on the ground in the hot sun…Sun-dried brick was notoriously impermanent, especially as a consequence of yearly downpours. The alternative, oven-baked brick, was expensive, however, because of the fuel and skilled labor required for its manufacture. As a result, it tended to be used for the houses of kings and gods rather than the homes of ordinary people.
> (285-286)
Light in the home was provided by small lamps fueled by sesame seed oil and sometimes by windows (in more expensive homes). Windows were constructed of wooden grillwork, and, as wood was a rare commodity, windowed homes were uncommon. The exterior of brick homes was whitewashed ("a further defense against the radiant heat", as Bertman notes) and "there would be only one exterior door, its frame painted bright red to keep out evil spirits" (286). Scholar Karen [Rhea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rhea/) Nemet-Nejat notes that, "the purpose of a house in southern Iraq was to provide shelter from the twelve [hours](https://www.worldhistory.org/Horae/) of unrelenting heat – the climate from May to September" (121). After September came the rainy season of cooler weather, when homes would be heated by burning palm fronds or palm wood.
[  Ruins of Ur M.Lubinski (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/347/ruins-of-ur/ "Ruins of Ur")Palaces, temples, and upper-class homes had ornate braziers for heating the rooms, while the lower classes made use of a shallow pit lined with hardened clay. Indoor plumbing was in wide use by at least the 3rd millennium BCE, with toilets in separate rooms of upper-class homes, palaces, and temples. Tiled drains, built at a slant, would carry waste from the building to a cesspool or a sewer system of clay pipes that would transport it to the river.
All homes in the region of Sumer, whether of the rich or poor, needed the blessing of the brother-gods Kabta and Mushdamma (deities who presided over foundations, buildings, construction, and bricks) before any building project could begin, and, upon completion, offerings were made to the god of completed construction, Arazu, in gratitude. Every region of Mesopotamia had some form of these same gods. Their blessing, however, did not always guarantee a secure home. Nemet-Nejet writes:
> Ancient houses, particularly those made of sun dried brick, often collapsed. The Laws of [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) devoted five sections to this problem, noting in particular the builder's responsibility: "If a builder constructs a house for a man, but does not make his work sound, and the house that he constructs collapses and causes the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of the householder, that builder shall be killed. If it should cause the death of a son of the householder, they shall kill a son of that builder."
> (121)
Homes were furnished in much the same way they are today, with chairs (which had legs, backs, and, in wealthier homes, arms), tables, beds, and kitchenware. In affluent homes, beds were made from a wooden frame, crisscrossed with rope or reeds, covered by a mattress stuffed with wool or goat hair, and had linen sheets. These beds were often intricately carved and, by the third millennium, were sometimes "overlaid with [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/), [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/), or [copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/)" and "had legs that often terminated with an ox foot or claw" (Nemet-Nejet, 125). The lower classes, of course, could not afford such luxury and slept on mats of woven straw or reeds, which were laid on the floor. Tables were constructed in the same way they still are today (the more prosperous homes had linen tablecloths and napkins), and families gathered at the table for the evening meal in the same way many still do presently.
[  Shells Containing Cosmetic Pigments from Ur Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8120/shells-containing-cosmetic-pigments-from-ur/ "Shells Containing Cosmetic Pigments from Ur")### Family & Leisure
The family was constituted as it is in the modern day, with a mother, father, children, and extended family. Both men and women worked while the children's lives were directed according to their sex and social status. Male children of the upper classes were sent to school, while their sisters remained at home and learned the domestic arts; sons of the lower classes followed their fathers into the fields or whatever line of work they pursued, while the daughters, as with the upper classes, emulated their mother's role in her job. The toys these children played with were, likewise, similar to toys in the present day, such as toy trucks and dolls. Bertman writes:
> For infants and toddlers there were terra-cotta rattles, filled with pellets and pinched at the edges like piecrust, with a small hole for a string. For boys, dreaming of hunting or soldiering, there were slingshots and little bows and arrows and boomerangs to throw. For girls, hoping to raise their own children someday, there were dolls and miniature pieces of furniture (tables, stools, and beds) for playing house. Meanwhile, handheld ships and chariots, and tiny draught animals and wagons, let the young travel through the world of their imagination. For more amusement there were also balls and hoops and a game of jump rope named curiously for the love goddess [Ishtar](https://www.worldhistory.org/ishtar/).
> (298-299)
Families also enjoyed board games (the most popular being much like the game of Parcheesi) and games of dice. Images depict families at leisure in much the same way family photographs do today. Sports seem to have primarily involved males, and the most popular were wrestling and boxing among the lower classes and hunting among the nobility.
The family meal, as noted, was similar to that in the present day, with the major difference being the forms of entertainment during and after the dinner. Storytelling was an important aspect of an evening meal, as was music. In poorer homes, a family member would play an instrument or sing, or tell a story, after dinner; the wealthy had slaves for this purpose or professional entertainers. These people played instruments familiar to anyone in the modern day.
The Mesopotamians had singers, of course, and also percussion (drums, bells, castanets, sistrums, and rattles), wind instruments (recorders, flutes, horns, and [panpipes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Panpipes/)), and stringed instruments (the [lyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lyre/) and the harp). Images throughout Mesopotamia attest to the people's great love of music, and Bertman writes:
> So great, in fact, was a queen of Ur's love of music, she could not bear the thought of being in the afterworld without it; so, with the help of a sleeping potion in the [tomb](https://www.worldhistory.org/tomb/), she took her royal musicians with her into the beyond.
> (295)
Inscriptions and images also depict Mesopotamians listening to music while drinking beer or reading or relaxing in their home or garden. Bertman notes that "music was an integral part of ancient Mesopotamian life. The images on inlaid plaques, carved seal-stones, and sculpted reliefs transport us back to a world of sound. We watch a shepherd playing his flute as his dog sits and attentively listens" (294). Music was also, at least for the wealthier citizens, an integral part of the banquet and even private meals.
[  Assyrian Wall Relief Depicting Musical Instruments Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2996/assyrian-wall-relief-depicting-musical-instruments/ "Assyrian Wall Relief Depicting Musical Instruments")### Food & Clothing
The chief grain crop in Mesopotamia was barley, and so it is no wonder that they were the first to invent beer. The goddess of beer was Ninkasi, whose famous hymn from circa 1800 BCE is also the world's oldest beer recipe. Beer is thought to have originated from fermented barley bread. The Mesopotamians also enjoyed a diet of fruits and vegetables (apples, cherries, figs, melons, apricots, pears, plums, dates, lettuce, cucumbers, carrots, beans, peas, beets, cabbage, and turnips) as well as fish from the streams and rivers, and livestock from their pens (mostly goats, pigs, and sheep, since cows were expensive to keep and were too precious to be slaughtered for beef). They would have augmented this diet through hunting game such as deer, gazelle, and birds.
The people also kept domesticated geese and ducks for eggs. Bottero notes that the Mesopotamians had "an impressive inventory of goods" which made up their daily meals and flavored their food with oils and mineral products (sesame oil and salt, for example) and further notes that "all these indigenous ingredients were so varied that, as far as we know, the Mesopotamians never imported from abroad, so to speak, in spite of the intensity and geographical extent of their [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/)" (45-46). Along with beer (which was so greatly valued it was used to pay workers' wages), the people drank strong wine or water. Beer, however, was the most popular beverage in ancient Mesopotamia and, because of its nutrients and thickness, often served as the largest part of the midday meal.
[  Mesopotamian Beer Rations Tablet Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4849/mesopotamian-beer-rations-tablet/ "Mesopotamian Beer Rations Tablet")Mesopotamians would wash and dress for the evening meal. Before eating anything, prayers of gratitude would be offered to the gods who had provided the food. [Religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) was an integral part of the lives of all Mesopotamians and, since it was centered on the concept of a human being as co-worker with the gods, the deities of the [Mesopotamian pantheon](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/221/the-mesopotamian-pantheon/) were a part of one's daily existence. The gods provided the people with all their needs and, in return, the people labored in the service of the gods. Bottero writes:
> Not only were these gods the originators of the universe and mankind, but they remained their supreme masters and guided their existence and evolution from day to day. For that reason, they were regarded as the promoters and guarantors of all the infinite obligations – positive and negative – that govern human life.
> (248)
All aspects of Mesopotamian existence were imbued with a sense of the divine at work, even the clothes that they wore. Clothing in Mesopotamia, like everything else, was dictated by, and reflected, one's social standing. Bertman notes:
> Archaeologists confirm that textiles were among the first of human inventions. Plant fibers may have been twisted, sewn, and plaited \[to make clothing\] as far back as the Old [Stone Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stone_Age/), some 25,000 years ago \[but\] wool seems to have been Mesopotamia's most common kind of cloth, along with linen, which was reserved for more expensive garments. Cotton wasn't introduced until the days of the Assyrians, who imported the plant from [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) and the Sudan around 700 BCE; and [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/), perhaps not until the days of the Romans, who imported it from [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
> (289)
Men generally wore either a long robe or pleated skirts of goatskin or sheepskin, and women dressed in one-piece tunics of either wool or linen. Soldiers are distinctive in the ancient depictions in that they always wore hooded capes over their uniforms. Older men are always seen in one-piece robes, which fall to their ankles, while younger men seem to have worn either the robe or the skirt. Women are always depicted wearing the robe, but these robes were not uniformly monocolored.
[  Detail of the War Scene of the Standard of Ur Showing Sumerian Warriors Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8428/detail-of-the-war-scene-of-the-standard-of-ur-show/ "Detail of the War Scene of the Standard of Ur Showing Sumerian Warriors")Many different patterns and designs are seen in the dress of Mesopotamian women, while the men, except for kings and soldiers and, sometimes, scribes, are routinely seen in monotone robes. Shawls, hooded capes, and wraps were used in bad weather, and these were often embroidered and tassled. Girls dressed like their mothers and boys like their fathers, and everyone wore sandals of greater or more modest design. Women's sandals, generally, were more likely to be ornamented than those of men.
Women and men both wore cosmetics and, as Bertman writes, "the desire to enhance one's natural beauty and allure through the use of cosmetics and perfume is attested as far back as [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) times" (291). Men and women would outline their eyes with an early form of mascara, much as the Egyptians are famous for doing, and perfumes were used by both sexes after bathing. Perfumes were made by "steeping aromatic plants in water and blending their essence with oil" (Bertman, 291), and some of these recipes became so popular that they were closely guarded, since they could raise a perfume maker from a lower-class worker to almost the level of nobility.
### Conclusion
The daily life of the ancient Mesopotamians was not so different from the lives of people today. Like those of the modern world, the people of the ancient regions of Mesopotamia loved their families, worked their jobs, and enjoyed their leisure time. Advances in technology give one the impression that, in the modern day, people are much wiser and vastly different from those who lived thousands of years ago, but the archaeological record tells a different story. Human beings have never been very different, in both good and bad ways, than they are today, and the basic needs and desires, as well as the daily lives, of the people of ancient Mesopotamia adhere to a pattern that is quite familiar.
#### Editorial Review
This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).
## Bibliography
- [Bertman, S. *Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Oxford University Press, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195183649/)
- [Bottéro, J. *Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0801868645/)
- [Kramer, S.N. *History Begins at Sumer.* University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0812212762/)
- [Kriwaczek, P. *Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.* Thomas Dunne Books, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00DIKTPXC/)
- [Leick, G. *Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City.* Penguin Books, 2002.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0140265740/)
- [Nemet-Nejat, K.R. *Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Greenwood, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0313294976/)
- [Wilder, T. *Our Town.* Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0060512636/)
## About the Author
Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)
## Questions & Answers
### What was the social structure in ancient Mesopotamia?
Mesopotamian society was rigidly structured, with the king at the top, followed by the clergy, the upper class, then the lower class, and slaves.
### Where did the different social classes live in ancient Mesopotamia?
Kings and queens in ancient Mesopotamia lived in palaces; the clergy lived at the temple complex; the upper class lived in houses made of sun-baked brick; the lower classes lived in houses made of reeds; slaves lived in the homes of their masters or nearby in reed houses.
### What were some of the jobs in ancient Mesopotamia?
Jobs in ancient Mesopotamia included king, queen, general, priest, scribe, teacher, private tutor, architect, astrologer, merchant, artist, musician, jewelry maker, basketweaver, baker, brewer, construction worker, skilled and unskilled laborer, soldier, cartmaker, tavern owner, cook, maid, prostitute, farmer, cart and chariot driver, carpenter, metallurgist, brickmaker, and goldsmith.
### What was family life like in ancient Mesopotamia?
Family life was presided over by the male head of the household in Mesopotamia. The father, mother, and children lived in a home with (or near) their extended family, and the whole family tended to live near members of their clan. The parents both worked, as did the children in lower-class families, while upper-class boys were educated and upper-class girls taught domestic duties. Families enjoyed storytelling, music, sports, and festivals just as they do today.
## External Links
- [Expedition Magazine | Mesopotamian City Life by William B. Hafford](https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/mesopotamian-city-life/)
- [Mesopotamian Hurrian Hymn Over 3,000 Years Old](https://mymodernmet.com/hurrian-hymn/)
- [History for Kids/Daily Life of Mesopotamia](https://www.historyforkids.net/daily-life-of-mesopotamia.html)
- [The Archaeologist/Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia](https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/daily-life-in-ancient-mesopotamia-1)
## Cite This Work
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