656 CE - 661 CE: The murder of Caliph Uthman causes the eruption of the First Fitna (civil war). Muawiya surfaces as a major opposer of the Rashidun Caliphate.

656 CE: The Battle of the Camel.

656 CE - 661 CE: Ali ibn Abi Talib succeeds Uthman to become the fourth and final caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.

657 CE: Battle of Siffin.

657 CE: Ali ibn Abi Talib moves his empire's capital to Kufa in Iraq.

661 CE: Caliph Ali is assassinated by the Kharijites.