--- title: Unified Silla Kingdom author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 1970-01-01 --- # Unified Silla Kingdom _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ The Unified [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) Kingdom (668- 935 CE) was the first dynasty to rule over the whole of the Korean peninsula. After centuries of battles with the other states of the [Three Kingdoms Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Three_Kingdoms_Period/) (57 BCE - 668 CE) Silla benefitted from the help of the Chinese [Tang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tang_Dynasty/) to finally defeat its rivals and form a unified Korean state. In the following century, the kingdom would flourish and produce some of the finest art and [architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/architecture/) yet seen in ancient [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). In the 10th century CE Silla fell to the resurgent northern kingdom, now known as [Goryeo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goryeo/), which would rule until 1392 CE. ### The Unification of Korea The [Three Kingdoms period in Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Three_Kingdoms_Period_in_Korea/) stretched from the 1st century BCE to the late 7th century CE and involved four political entities: the Kingdoms of [Baekje](https://www.worldhistory.org/Baekje/) ([Paekche](https://www.worldhistory.org/Baekje/)), [Goguryeo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goguryeo/) ([Koguryo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goguryeo/)), and Silla, and the [Gaya](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gaya/) ([Kaya](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gaya/)) confederation. At various times [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) also took an active interest in the region, especially under the [Han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/), [Sui](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sui_Dynasty/), and [Tang](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tang_Dynasty/) dynasties. In the 660s CE, with military aid from the Tangs, who were eager to have these troublesome southern kingdoms weaken themselves fighting against each other, the Silla kingdom was able to defeat their long-standing rivals. This still left the Tangs as a dangerous player in Korean affairs, but while they were preoccupied with a rising Tibet, Silla armies defeated the Chinese forces which remained in Korea in the battles at Maesosong (675 CE) and Kibolpo (676 CE). ### Consolidation & Prosperity The new state, referred to as the Unified Silla Kingdom (*Tong-il Silla*) to distinguish it from its smaller predecessor the Silla Kingdom (*Ko-Silla* - 'Old Silla'), controlled all of Korea as far north as the Daedong River. Their immediate northern neighbour was the unfriendly [Balhae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Balhae/) ([Parhae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Balhae/)) kingdom in Manchuria, which had been formed by exiles from the old Goguryeo kingdom and members of the semi-nomadic Malgal. The Silla kings were now dominated by the Kim clan with only a handful of kings coming from other aristocratic families. To help unify the country politically ruling aristocrats from the fallen kingdoms were forcibly relocated to where they were less likely to stir up rebellion but given a status equal to their Silla counterparts. To further ensure loyalty, certain members of these aristocratic families were required to regularly present themselves at Geumseong (also then known as Seorabol and today as [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/)), still the capital [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/). Those individuals regarded as too dangerous to the state and prisoners of war were enslaved to work on the estates of the aristocracy, in manufacturing workshops, or on government building projects. The overall size of the slave population is suggested by the records that some aristocrats had as many as 3,000 slave workers. The whole state was now divided into nine provinces (three in each of the old three kingdoms) and five secondary capitals. Each province (*chu*) was governed by a general commandant administrator with the title of *chonggwan*. The title was changed to *todok* (governor) in the 9th century CE. Each province had 117 prefectures (*kun*), each of which was further divided into 293 counties (*hyon*), with each one being composed of various villages and hamlets (*chon*) and those specially created settlements for undesired persons (*hyang*, *so*, and *pugok*). Every level had its own chief administrator, all of whom were regularly supervised by a government inspector or *oesajong*. A further measure to ensure local loyalties were maintained was to compel village headmen to send their eldest sons to work in the capital administration or military, a process known as (*sangsuri*). [ ![Unified Silla & Balhae Kingdoms](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5839.gif?v=1705612689) Unified Silla & Balhae Kingdoms KJS615 (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5839/unified-silla--balhae-kingdoms/ "Unified Silla & Balhae Kingdoms")Gyeongju became even more splendid in this period. It is described in the *[Samguk yusa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Samguk_Yusa/)* collection of texts as having an astonishing 35 palaces, 55 streets, 1360 districts, and 178,936 houses. This would allow for a population of around 900,000. One [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) was built on the shore of an artificial lake while another had watercourses running through it so that floating wine cups could be floated to guests. There were even palaces and gardens specifically for each of the four [seasons](https://www.worldhistory.org/Horae/) with exotic flora and fauna. New temples were built or extended such as the massive Bulguksa ([Temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) of the [Buddha](https://www.worldhistory.org/Siddhartha_Gautama/) Land) which rose from a lotus lake. The wider kingdom prospered due to a thriving agricultural industry, which was made more productive via extensive irrigation projects, and [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) throughout the East China Sea. The prolonged absence of war also meant that the arts and sciences flourished as never before. Architecture, [sculpture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Sculpture/), metalwork, mathematics, and astronomy were particular areas of excellence. History became an important study, and it was at this time that improvements were made in woodblock printing. ### Relations with China Despite the Silla kingdom's refusal to become just another Chinese province, relations with China were not soured, in fact, the young Korean state became a loyal ally. The influence of Chinese [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) continued to be significant, as it had been throughout the previous Three Kingdoms period. Both [Confucianism](https://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/) and [Buddhism](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) remained an important part of the Silla education system, and the latter was still the official state [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), practised by all levels of society. The most famous of all [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) scholar-monks belongs to this period – Wonyho, who popularised the faith in the 7th century CE. If anything Confucianism became stronger in the Unified Silla with a National Confucian Academy established in 682 CE and an examination for state administrators introduced in 788 CE. [ ![Unified Silla Kingdom Gold Buddha](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5801.jpg?v=1626490804) Unified Silla Kingdom Gold Buddha National Museum of Korea (CC BY) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5801/unified-silla-kingdom-gold-buddha/ "Unified Silla Kingdom Gold Buddha")There was a healthy trade between the two states too with Chinese luxury goods such as [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/), books, tea, and art being imported while Korea exported metals (especially [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) and [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/)), ginseng, hemp goods, manufactured goods, horses, and sent students and scholars to China. There were even Silla controlled trading areas in Chinese territory, such was the volume of trade. Relations were also maintained with southern [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/), especially in the [Nara](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nara/) and Heian periods. Arab merchants, who brought spices, carpets, and jewellery, were another point of contact with the wider world. Finally, glass finds within Korea include [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/), [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/), and Syrian vessels attesting to a thriving trade network throughout the period. ### Silla Art Metalwork continued to be a fine Silla art, best seen in the gold crowns from various tombs, but the Unified Period also saw a new art form develop, that of making large [bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/)-cast bells (*pomjong*) which were used in Buddhist temples to announce services. The largest example is from Bongdeoksa, also known as the Emille Bell, which was cast in 771 CE to honour King Seongdeok. 3.3 metres tall and over 2.2 metres in diameter, it is decorated with lotus flowers and heavenly beings with a suspension loop in the form of a dragon. Weighing almost 19 tons, the bell is now on display in the Gyeongju National Museum. Another popular art form was bronze-cast sculpture, especially Buddhist figures which were gilded and polished. Monumental figures were also made using cast iron with parts made separately and then assembled and painted or covered in plaster. Yet another use of bronze was to manufacture intricate boxes to store relics and important texts. These are known as a sarira and could take the form of pagodas and trees. Unified [Silla pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/983/silla-pottery/) displays a marked influence of Buddhism. Cremation necessitated the manufacture of urns for ashes, and Buddhist motifs prevail in stamped decoration such as lotus flowers and clouds, often with lotus buds for lid handles. Everyday [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) was left undecorated, but special pieces show a greater density of decoration than previously, and there is the first ash glaze which would develop into the later celadon ceramics of the Goryeo period. Tombs have also revealed pottery figures and models, which include servants, warriors, and animals. [ ![Buddha Statue, Seokguram Grotto](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5830.jpg?v=1775065445) Buddha Statue, Seokguram Grotto Jinho Jung (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5830/buddha-statue-seokguram-grotto/ "Buddha Statue, Seokguram Grotto")Other surviving examples of Unified Silla artistry come in the form of stone lanterns, roof tiles with hideous faces to ward off evil spirits, floor tiles decorated with lotus petals (increasing from the standard 6-8 of previous periods to either 16 or 32), and calligraphy (unfortunately, no paper examples survive) by such greats as Kim Saeng (again no works exist today), and seen in the stonework of the Hwaom [sutra](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sutra/) passages at the Hwaeomsa temple in the South Jeolla province. ### Silla Architecture We know from descriptions that the palaces of Gyeongju had their own gardens and lakes, but, sadly, all that survives of the buildings themselves are decorative floor tiles. Notable surviving structures at the capital include two stone pagodas – the Dabotap and Seokgatap – which both date to the 8th century CE, traditionally 751 CE. Stone pagodas are Korea's unique contribution to Buddhist architecture (in Japan they are of wood and in China of brick), and this pair was originally part of the magnificent 8th century CE [Bulguksa Temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bulguksa_Temple/), which now stands restored but only a fraction of its original size. One of the outstanding stone structures from the Unified Silla period is the Buddhist [Seokguram Grotto](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seokguram_Grotto/) temple east of Gyeongju. Constructed between 751 and 774 CE, it contains a circular domed inner chamber within which is a massive 3.45 metre high seated Buddha. The walls are decorated with 41 large figure-sculptures of disciples and bodhisattvas. [ ![Seokgatap Pagoda, Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5612.jpg?v=1618583434) Seokgatap Pagoda, Gyeongju Amy Elise Keel (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5612/seokgatap-pagoda-gyeongju/ "Seokgatap Pagoda, Gyeongju")From the 7th century CE onwards, Silla tombs became more like the earlier tombs of the Goguryeo and Baekje with a horizontal entrance and a smaller earth mound on top, which was then faced with stone slabs. The slabs are frequently decorated with relief carvings of the twelve animals of the oriental zodiac. Each figure carries a weapon and so offers symbolic protection of the [tomb](https://www.worldhistory.org/tomb/). Two of the finest examples are the tombs of the general [Kim Yu-sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kim_Yu-sin/) (7th century CE) and King Wonseong (8th century CE) at Bongdeoksa. Stupas were built too, the large domed buildings built as memorials to particularly renowned Buddhist monks. The most famous [stupa](https://www.worldhistory.org/stupa/) is that of Toyun, founder of the Saja-san sect, at the Ssanbong-sa temple at Hwasun while the oldest, built in 790 CE, commemorates Monk Yomgo. ### Decline The state began a slow decline from the 8th century CE, largely due to the rigidity of its class structure. This was based on the [bone rank system](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bone_Rank_System/), the strict social classification of entitlements and obligations dictated by one's birth, which continued to operate as in the old Silla kingdom and which completely dominated the workings of the aristocracy and state administration. Not only did the lack of opportunity to rise above the class of one's birth create a stagnation of ideas and innovations but the aristocracy began, too, to resent the power of the king. At the other end of the social ladder, the peasantry grew more and more resentful of the incessant taxes levied upon them. On top of that, local landed aristocrats (*songju*) became ever more difficult to control from Gyeongju. The state was falling apart from within. Two individuals would cause particular trouble for the Silla kings. One Gyeon Hwon, a peasant leader, took advantage of the political unrest in 892 CE and formed a revival of the old Baekje kingdom in the south-west portion of the peninsula. Meanwhile, an aristocratic-Buddhist monk leader, Gung Ye, declared a new Goguryeo state in the north in 901 CE, known as Later Goguryeo. There then followed another messy power struggle for control of the peninsula just as there had been in the Three Kingdoms period. Kyon Hwon attacked Gyeongju in 927 CE while Gung Ye's unpopular and fanatical tyranny led to his [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) at the hands of his own people. He was succeeded by his first minister, the able [Wang Geon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Taejo_of_Goryeo/), in 918 CE who attacked Later Baekje, now beset by leadership in-fighting, and then Silla. The last Silla king, Gyeongsun, surrendered in 935 CE and left [Wang Kon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Taejo_of_Goryeo/) to unify the country once again but under a new name, the Goryeo (Koryo) Dynasty, which would rule Korea from 918 CE to 1392 CE. This content was made possible with generous support from the [British Korean Society](http://www.britishkoreansociety.org.uk/?utm_source=ancient.eu&utm_medium=link&utm_campaign=ancient.eu). #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Jackson, B. *Korean Architecture.* Seoul Selection USA, Inc., 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/8997639234/) - [Jinwung Kim. *A History of Korea"Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict.* Indiana University Press, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0253000246/) - [Ki-baik Lee. *A New History of Korea.* Harvard University Asia Center, 1984.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/067461576X/) - Kim, C. *The Arts of Korea.* Thames & Hudson, 1966 - [Kyung Hwang. *A History of Korea.* Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0230205461/) - [Portal, J. *Korea: Art & Archaeology.* Thames & Hudson, 2000.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0500282021/) - [Pratt, K. *Korea - A Cultural & Historical Dictionary.* Routledge, 1999.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0700704639/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **57 BCE - 918 CE**: The [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) Kingdom rules in [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/), first as one of the Three Kingdoms and then alone from 668 CE. - **668 CE - 935 CE**: [Unified Silla Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/) in [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). - **676 CE**: A [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) army defeats a [Tang](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tang_Dynasty/) force at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Kibolpo, thus gaining control of the whole Korean peninsula. - **682 CE**: A National Confucian Academy is established in the [Unified Silla Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). - **698 CE - 926 CE**: The [Balhae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Balhae/) kingdom rules in Manchuria and northern [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). - **751 CE**: The Seokgatap stone pagoda is built at the [Bulguksa temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bulguksa_Temple/), [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/), [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). - **751 CE**: The Dabotap stone pagoda is built at the [Bulguksa temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bulguksa_Temple/), [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/), [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). - **751 CE - 774 CE**: The [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) cave [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) at Seokguram (Sokkuram) east of [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/), [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/) is built. - **751 CE - 790 CE**: The [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) [Bulguksa temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bulguksa_Temple/) complex is built east of [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/), [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/). - **771 CE**: The large [bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/) bell at the [Buddhist](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) shrine at Bongdeoksa, [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/), also known as the Emille Bell, is cast. - **788 CE**: An examination for state administrators based on [Confucianism](https://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/) is introduced in the [Unified Silla Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). - **828 CE**: [Jang Bogo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jang_Bogo/) establishes a garrison at Cheonghae, the Cheonghaejin fortress is constructed. - **839 CE**: [Jang Bogo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jang_Bogo/) supports Gim Ujing in taking the throne of the [Unified Silla kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). - **846 CE**: [Jang Bogo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jang_Bogo/) is assassinated in a [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) aristocratic conspiracy. - **885 CE**: [Choe Chiwon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Choe_Chiwon/) returns to [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) from [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) where he is appointed Vice-minister of [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **927 CE**: Rebel leader Gyeon Hwon attacks [Gyeongju](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gyeongju/), capital of the [Unified Silla Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). - **935 CE**: The last [Silla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silla/) king, Gyeongsun, surrenders to [Wang Geon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Taejo_of_Goryeo/) ruler of [Goryeo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goryeo/). ## External Links - [List of Rulers of Korea | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/koru/hd_koru.htm) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2016, October 06). Unified Silla Kingdom. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified\_Silla\_Kingdom/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Unified Silla Kingdom." *World History Encyclopedia*, October 06, 2016. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified\_Silla\_Kingdom/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Unified Silla Kingdom." *World History Encyclopedia*, 06 Oct 2016, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified\_Silla\_Kingdom/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Unified_Silla_Kingdom/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 06 October 2016. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). 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