--- title: Tokugawa Iemitsu author: Graham Squires source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Iemitsu/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2022-09-13 --- # Tokugawa Iemitsu _Authored by [Graham Squires](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/grahamsquires.b3m/)_ Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604-1651) governed [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/) as the third [shogun](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shogun/) of the [Edo period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Edo_Period/). He implemented a number of important policies that not only consolidated his family's hold on power but also greatly impacted Japanese society for several centuries. These included formalizing the *sankin kotai* system that required *daimyo* to spend alternate years in Edo and their own territory and the exclusion edicts that restricted contact between Japan and foreign countries. ### Early Years Iemitsu was the eldest son of Tokugawa Hidetada, the second shogun of the Tokugawa clan, and the grandson of [Tokugawa Ieyasu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Ieyasu/), the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate. Hidetada served as shogun from 1605 until 1623, at which time he abdicated in favor of Iemitsu. Up until his [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) in 1632, Hidetada continued to have a powerful influence over the government, so it is unclear which policies in this period originated with Hidetada and which with Iemitsu. After his father's death, Iemitsu quickly moved to consolidate his hold on power. One of his first actions was to accuse his younger brother Tadanaga of insanity, deprive him of his lands, and force him to commit seppuku. Judged by today's standards, this was a very brutal act, but at the time such behavior was commonplace. Iemitsu also engaged in various political maneuvers to make sure other branches of the Tokugawa family could not interfere in his government. ### Consolidating Tokugawa Rule Iemitsu was born in 1604 and, unlike his father and grandfather, had no firsthand experience of [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/). His great achievement, however, was to put in place a series of policies that consolidated his family's control over Japan. Through his victory in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Ieyasu established the Tokugawa as the most powerful warrior family in Japan. In 1603, he established a 'warrior government', which in Japanese is called a *bakufu* (literally, a "tent government"). The Tokugawa controlled about 30 percent of the land in Japan, and the rest was in the hands of other warrior families called *daimyo*. The *daimyo* were divided between those who had been allies of the Tokugawa before the Battle of Sekigahara (*fudai daimyo*) and those who had only submitted afterwards (*tozama daimyo*). The land controlled by a *daimyo* family was called a *[han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/),* and these varied greatly in size. The *han* of the *fudai daimyo* tended to be small and located in central Japan, whereas the holdings of the *tozama daimyo* were larger and located far from the political center. As former enemies of the Tokugawa, Ieyasu did not trust the *tozama daimyo* but he lacked either the desire or power to destroy them. In exchange for acknowledging the dominance of the Tokugawa at a national level, the *daimyo* were largely left to govern their own areas. While this acknowledgment may have been irksome for some of them, it was an arrangement that guaranteed the survival of their families. During the period of civil wars in the 15th and 16th centuries, *daimyo* families were under constant threat from both internal division and external enemies. An able leader could expand a family's power base, but frequently, those gains would be lost due to the lack of a competent heir. Control over land and people could be attained in battle, but it could not simply be maintained that way. A successful leader required political as well as military skills. Even after their decisive victory in the Battle of Sekigahara, the Tokugawa also faced this danger. In the 1620s and '30s, Iemitsu overcame this threat by putting in place a series of policies that greatly strengthened the position of the Tokugawa and weakened that of rival *daimyo* families. [ ![Battle of Sekigahara](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16369.jpg?v=1663069095-1663069129) Battle of Sekigahara Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16369/battle-of-sekigahara/ "Battle of Sekigahara")### The System of Alternate Attendance The most famous of these was the 'system of alternate attendance', which in Japanese is called *sankin kotai*. According to this system, *daimyo* had to spend alternate years in their own territories and in the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Edo, the seat of the Tokugawa government. The wives and families of *daimyo* had to live permanently in Edo where they were, more or less, hostages. The practice of holding hostages in order to guarantee loyalty of allies and subordinates had a long tradition in Japan, but this system was formalized for *tozama daimyo* in 1635 and for *fudai daimyo* in 1642. This was just one of the measures included in a series of edicts called Laws of the Military Houses (*Buke Sho-Hatto*). The first of these had been issued by Ieyasu in 1615, but Iemitsu issued an expanded version in 1635. The *sankin kotai* system continued to function up until the end of the Edo period in 1868, and its establishments had some far-reaching consequences that could not have been imagined by its creator. The system greatly hastened the development of Edo (modern Tokyo) as a city. Ieyasu had begun the construction of a huge castle in Edo in the early 1600s, and this work was continued by his successors. As part of the *sankin kotai* system, *daimyo* needed to construct residences in Edo. They built their mansions on land granted to them by the Tokugawa in the hilly area around the castle. This area was called *[yama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yama/) no te* (which means "hilly area") and stood in contrast to the low-lying area where ordinary people lived along the Sumida River which was called *shitamachi* ("downtown"). The population of Edo grew quickly because both the Tokugawa and the *daimyo* required many goods and services. By the end of the 17th century, Edo had a population of around one million and was the largest city in the world. [ ![Model of Edo Castle during the Tokugawa Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14146.jpg?v=1772569515) Model of Edo Castle during the Tokugawa Period Daderot (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14146/model-of-edo-castle-during-the-tokugawa-period/ "Model of Edo Castle during the Tokugawa Period")In order to facilitate the movement of *daimyo* from their home territories to Edo, it was necessary to create a good system of roads. In the early part of the 17th century, the government created a road network called the *gokaido* ("five roads"). This consisted of five major roads that radiated out from Edo, linking the city with other parts of Japan. The most important of these was the Tokaido that ran along the Pacific coast linking Edo with Kyoto. Post stations were built along these roads where travelers could find food, lodging, and entertainment. The government also set up checking stations to ensure that those using the roads had the required documentation and were not doing anything illegal. It was along these roads that the *daimyo* and their retainers moved in their trips back and forth to and from Edo. These so-called '*daimyo* processions' could consist of hundreds of people. Local *daimyo* had to pay the cost of building and maintaining the roads. Many also built additional roads within their territories to facilitate movement. Finally, the *sankin kotai* system stimulated economic growth. One of the main goals of the Tokugawa in forcing *daimyo* to come to Edo was to deplete their resources. Maintaining a residence in Edo and moving large numbers of retainers backwards and forwards required a great deal of money. By making the *daimyo* spend this money, the Tokugawa hoped to weaken them financially. For *daimyo*, there were two ways of increasing their income to meet this burden. One was to try and enlarge their share of the wealth generated from their territory by increasing taxes. This was not particularly effective as farmers had considerable capacity to resist this. The other approach was to try and expand the overall productivity of their land by stimulating economic growth. Conditions varied greatly from area to area, but many *daimyo* encouraged growth through the clearing of new land for [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/), improved irrigation and farming methods, and the production of new products such as cotton, [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/), salt, wax, and paper. Improvements in transportation also facilitated the development of local, regional, and national markets for these products. In this way, the *sankin kotai* system, although originally intended simply as a means of political control, encouraged the growth of transport and trade, the expansion of towns and cities, and eventually a shared national culture as people and goods moved more freely around the country. ### Restricting Contact with Foreign Countries One other area where Iemitsu's policies had a lasting impact on Japanese society related to the edicts he issued restricting contact between Japan and foreign countries. Relations with countries on the Asian mainland played an important role in the development of the Japanese cultural tradition from the earliest times. In the 16th century, however, new visitors from [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/) arrived in Japan for the first time. These newcomers were keen to engage in trade and also to spread [Christianity](https://www.worldhistory.org/christianity/), a [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) that had been unknown in Japan up until that time. Quite a lot of ordinary people converted to Christianity, as did a few *daimyo*. Christianity was not just a religion in a spiritual sense, as it was also closely associated with the imperial expansion of countries like Spain and Portugal. [Oda Nobunaga](https://www.worldhistory.org/Oda_Nobunaga/) (1534-1582) and [Toyotomi Hideyoshi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi/) (1537-1598), the two warriors who began the process of national reunification at the end of the 16th century, were interested in European culture but suspicious of the new religion. Nobunaga in particular regarded some religious institutions as major obstacles to his attempts to reunify Japan. Today [Buddhism](https://www.worldhistory.org/buddhism/) is thought of as being a peaceful religion, but in historical times, monks often found it necessary to physically defend their temples and monasteries. This was especially the case in the period of civil wars when warrior-monks engaged in battles with marauding *daimyo* armies. [Enryakuji](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enryakuji/) [Temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) located on Mount Hiei in northeastern Kyoto had an especially large army. In 1571, Nobunaga laid siege to the temple and destroyed it. It is said that hundreds, if not thousands, of monks were killed. In 1580 he also destroyed Ishiyama Honganji Temple (located on the site of the modern city of Osaka) after a ten-year [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). Given these experiences, it is not surprising that both Nobunaga and Hideyoshi looked upon a religion like Christianity with suspicion. [ ![The Portuguese in Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14354.png?v=1739619124) The Portuguese in Japan Kanō Naizen (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14354/the-portuguese-in-japan/ "The Portuguese in Japan")Although he was keen to trade with Europeans, in 1615 Tokugawa Ieyasu banned Christian missionaries from coming to Japan. After Iemitsu became shogun, he prohibited Christianity altogether and engaged in widespread persecution. Many Christians were tortured before being killed. In the late 1630s, a large rebellion broke out amongst farmers in Kyushu. It seems that the main causes were economic, but many of those involved were thought to be Christians. After brutally suppressing the rebellion, Iemitsu issued orders severely restricting contact between Japan and foreign countries. All Europeans were banned from coming to Japan except for the Dutch who were restricted to a trading post called Dejima on an island in Nagasaki harbor. Japanese who were already overseas – and there were many of these, engaged in trade in various countries in South-East Asia – were prohibited from returning home. In Japanese, these restrictions on foreign contact are called *sakoku,* which means "national isolation". Historians used to stress the negative impact these policies had on Japan, but more recent research has emphasized the fact that Japan was not totally isolated. In addition to contact with Dutch Nagasaki, Japan also maintained relations with [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) and [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/) as well as the inhabitants of the Ryukyu Islands (modern-day Okinawa Prefecture) and the Ainu people in what is now Hokkaido Prefecture but which, at that time, was outside of Japanese control. The motivation for Iemitsu's restrictions on contact with foreign countries is not completely clear. However, it seems most likely that he believed rival *daimyo* families might seek foreign support in rebelling against the Tokugawa. In this regard, the policy of alternate attendance and national isolation can be seen as having the same goal: the preservation of Tokugawa rule. From that perspective, both these policies were successful as the Tokugawa managed to stay in power until 1868. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Boxer, Professor C R. *The Christian Century in Japan, 1549-1650.* Carcanet Press Ltd, 1993.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1857540352/) - [Sansom, George. *A HISTORY OF JAPAN. 3 VOLUME SET Volume 1; to 1334, Volume 2; 1334-1615, Volume..* Stanford University Press, 1967.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00CXQCQ10/) - [Totman, Conrad D. *Politics in Tokugawa Bakufu, 1600-1843.* Harvard University Press, 1967.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0674688007/) - [Vaporis, Constantine Nomikos. *Tour of Duty.* University of Hawaii Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0824834704/) ## About the Author Graham Squires is a senior lecturer in Japanese Studies at the University of Newcastle in Australia. ## Timeline - **1604 CE - 1651 CE**: Life of [Tokugawa Iemitsu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Iemitsu/), third [shogun](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shogun/) of the [Edo period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Edo_Period/). ## Questions & Answers ### What did Tokugawa Iemitsu do? Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604-1651) implemented the sankin kotai system that required daimyo to spend alternate years in Edo and their own territory and introduced exclusion edicts that restricted contact between Japan and foreign countries. ### Why did Tokugawa Iemitsu close Japan's borders? The motivation for Iemitsu's restrictions on contact with foreign countries is not completely clear. It seems most likely that he wanted to prevent rival daimyo families from seeking foreign support in rebelling against the Tokugawa. ## Cite This Work ### APA Squires, G. (2022, September 13). Tokugawa Iemitsu. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa\_Iemitsu/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Iemitsu/) ### Chicago Squires, Graham. "Tokugawa Iemitsu." *World History Encyclopedia*, September 13, 2022. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa\_Iemitsu/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Iemitsu/). ### MLA Squires, Graham. "Tokugawa Iemitsu." *World History Encyclopedia*, 13 Sep 2022, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa\_Iemitsu/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tokugawa_Iemitsu/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Graham Squires](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/grahamsquires.b3m/ "User Page: Graham Squires"), published on 13 September 2022. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.