---
title: Silk Road
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2025-02-04
---

# Silk Road

_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_

The [Silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/) Road was a network of ancient [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) routes, formally established during the [Han Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) of [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) in 130 BCE, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE. The Silk Road was not a single route from east to west and so historians favor the name 'Silk Routes', though 'Silk Road' is commonly used.

The European explorer [Marco Polo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marco_Polo/) (l.1254-1324 CE) traveled on these routes and described them in depth in his famous work but he is not credited with naming them. Both terms for this network of roads - Silk Road and Silk Routes - were coined by the German geographer and traveler, Ferdinand von Richthofen, in 1877 CE, who designated them 'Seidenstrasse' (silk road) or 'Seidenstrassen' (silk routes). Polo, and later von Richthofen, make mention of the goods which were transported back and forth on the Silk Road.

**From West to East these goods included:**

- Horses
- Saddles and Riding Tack
- The grapevine and grapes
- Dogs and other animals both exotic and domestic
- Animal furs and skins
- Honey
- Fruits
- Glassware
- Woolen blankets, rugs, carpets
- Textiles (such as curtains)
- [Gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) and [Silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/)
- Camels
- Slaves
- Weapons and armor

**From East to West the goods included:**

- Silk
- Tea
- Dyes
- Precious Stones
- China (plates, bowls, cups, vases)
- Porcelain
- Spices (such as cinnamon and ginger)
- [Bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/) and gold artifacts
- [Medicine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/medicine/)
- Perfumes
- Ivory
- Rice
- Paper
- Gunpowder

The network was used regularly from 130 BCE, when the [Han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) Dynasty (202 BCE - 220 CE) officially opened trade with the west, to 1453 CE, when the [Ottoman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ottoman_Empire/) boycotted trade with the west and closed the routes. By this time, Europeans had become used to the goods from the east and, when the Silk Road closed, merchants needed to find new trade routes to meet the demand for these goods.

[ ![Camel with Guide, Tang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/9722.jpg?v=1740436144) Camel with Guide, Tang Dynasty Jan van der Crabben (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9722/camel-with-guide-tang-dynasty/ "Camel with Guide, Tang Dynasty")The closure of the Silk Road initiated the Age of Discovery (also known as the Age of Exploration, 1453-1660 CE) which would be defined by European explorers taking to the sea and charting new water routes to replace over-land trade. The Age of Discovery would impact cultures around the world as European ships claimed some lands in the name of their [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) and country and influenced others by introducing western [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) and [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) and, at the same time, these other nations influenced European cultural traditions. The Silk Road - from its opening to its closure - had so great an impact on the development of world [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/) that it is difficult to imagine the modern world without it.

### Persian Royal Road

The history of the Silk Road pre-dates the Han Dynasty in practice, however, as the Persian Royal Road, which would come to serve as one of the main arteries of the Silk Road, was established during the [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/) (c. 550-330 BCE). The Persian Royal Road ran from [Susa](https://www.worldhistory.org/susa/), in north [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) (modern day Iran) to the [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/) Sea in [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/) (modern-day [Turkey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/)) and featured postal stations along the route with fresh horses for envoys to quickly deliver messages throughout the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/), [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) of the speed and efficiency of the Persian messengers, stated that:

> There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor darkness of night prevents these couriers from completing their designated stages with utmost speed. (*Histories* VIII.98)

These lines would, centuries later, form the creed of the United States of America's post office. The Persians maintained the Royal Road carefully and, in time, expanded it through smaller side roads. These paths eventually crossed down into the Indian subcontinent, across [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), and over into [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).

[ ![Persian Royal Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/5515.png?v=1737409264) Persian Royal Road Fabienkhan (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5515/persian-royal-road/ "Persian Royal Road")### China & the West

After [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) conquered the Persians, he established the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) (later the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) Kingdom) of [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/) Eschate in 339 BCE in the Fergana Valley of Neb (modern Tajikistan). Leaving behind his wounded veterans in the city, [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) moved on. In time, these Macedonian warriors intermarried with the indigenous populace creating the Greco-Bactrian culture which flourished under the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) following Alexander's [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/).

Under the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I (r. 260-195 BCE) the Greco-Bactrians had extended their holdings. According to the Greek historian Strabo (63-24 CE) the Greeks “extended their empire as far as the Seres” (*Geography* XI.ii.i). `Seres' was the name by which the Greeks and Romans knew China, meaning `the land where silk came from' in East Asia. It is thought, then, that the first contact between China and the west came around the year 200 BCE.

The Han Dynasty of China was regularly harassed by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu on their northern and western borders. In 138 BCE, Emperor Wu sent his emissary Zhang Qian to the west to negotiate with the Yuezhi people for help in defeating the Xiongnu.

Zhang Qian's expedition led him into contact with many different cultures and civilizations in central Asia and, among them, those whom he designated the `Dayuan', the `Great Ionians', who were the Greco-Bactrians descended from Alexander the Great's army. The Dayuan had mighty horses, Zhang Qian reported back to Wu, and these could be employed effectively against the marauding Xiongnu.

The consequences of Zhang Qian's journey was not only further contact between China and the west but an organized and efficient horse breeding program throughout the land in order to equip a cavalry. The horse had long been known in China and had been used in [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) for cavalry and chariots as early as the [Shang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shang_Dynasty/) (1600 – 1046 BCE) but the Chinese admired the western horse for its size and speed. With the western horse of the Dayuan, the Han Dynasty defeated the Xiongnu. This success inspired Emperor Wu to speculate on what else might be gained through trade with the west and the Silk Road was opened in 130 BCE.

Between 171-138 BCE, Mithridates I of [Parthia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Parthia/) campaigned to expand and consolidate his kingdom in Mesopotamia. The [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) King Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 138-129 BCE) opposed this expansion and, also wishing revenge for the death of his brother, Demetrius, waged [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) against the Parthian forces of Phrates II, Mithridates successor. With the defeat of Antiochus, Mesopotamia came under Parthian rule and, with it, came control of the Silk Road. The Parthians then became the central intermediaries between China and the west.

[ ![Women Checking Silk, Song China.](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/6920.jpg?v=1777375811) Women Checking Silk, Song China. Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6920/women-checking-silk-song-china/ "Women Checking Silk, Song China.")### Goods Traded via the Silk Road

While many different kinds of merchandise traveled along the network of trade of the Silk Road, the name comes from the popularity of Chinese silk with the west, especially with [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). The Silk Road routes stretched from China through [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/), Asia Minor, up throughout Mesopotamia, to Egypt, the African continent, [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), Rome, and [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/).

The northern Mesopotamian region (present-day Iran) became China's closest partner in trade, as part of the [Parthian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthia_(Empire)/), initiating important cultural exchanges. Paper, which had been invented by the Chinese during the Han Dynasty, and gunpowder, also a Chinese invention, had a much greater impact on culture than did silk. The rich spices of the east, also, contributed more than the fashion which grew up from the silk industry. Even so, by the time of the [Roman Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Augustus](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) (r. 27 BCE – 14 CE) trade between China and the west was firmly established and silk was the most sought-after commodity in Egypt, Greece, and, especially, in Rome.

[ ![Map of the Trade Links between Rome & the East](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15772.png?v=1764060000-1764060760) Map of the Trade Links between Rome & the East Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15772/map-of-the-trade-links-between-rome--the-east/ "Map of the Trade Links between Rome & the East")### The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) Love of Silk

Prior to becoming Emperor Augustus, [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) seized on the controversial topic of silk clothing to denounce his adversaries [Mark Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) (l. 83-30 BCE) and [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/) (l. 69-30 BCE) as immoral. As they both favored Chinese silk, which was increasingly becoming associated with licentiousness, Octavian exploited the link to deprecate his enemies. Octavian would [triumph](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Triumph/) over [Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) and [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/); he could do nothing, however, to curtail the popularity of silk.

The historian Will Durant writes:

> The Romans thought \[silk\] a vegetable product combed from trees and valued it at its weight in gold. Much of this silk came to the island of [Kos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kos/), where it was woven into dresses for the ladies of Rome and other [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/); in A.D. 91 the relatively poor state of Messenia had to forbid its [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) to wear transparent silk dresses at religious initiations. (329)

By the time of [Seneca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seneca/) the Younger (l. 4 BCE – 65 CE), conservative Romans were more ardent than Augustus in decrying the Chinese silk as immoral dress for women and effeminate attire for men. These criticisms did nothing to stop the silk trade with Rome, however, and the island of Kos became wealthy and luxurious through their manufacture of silk clothing.

As Durant writes, "[Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) enjoyed an 'unfavorable' balance of trade – cheerfully \[buying\] more than she sold” but still exported rich goods to China such as “carpets, jewels, [amber](https://www.worldhistory.org/Amber/), metals, dyes, drugs, and glass” (328-329). Up through the time of the emperor [Marcus Aurelius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Aurelius/) (r.161-180 CE), silk was the most valued commodity in Rome and no amount of conservative criticism seemed to be able to slow the trade or stop the fashion.

[ ![Tyrian Purple Shroud of Charlemagne](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5393.jpg?v=1765683385) Tyrian Purple Shroud of Charlemagne Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5393/tyrian-purple-shroud-of-charlemagne/ "Tyrian Purple Shroud of Charlemagne")Even after Aurelius, silk remained popular, though increasingly expensive, until the fall of the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/) in 476 CE. Rome was survived by its eastern half which came to be known as the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and which carried on the Roman infatuation with silk. Around 60 CE the west had become aware that silk was not grown on the trees in China but was actually spun by silkworms. The Chinese had very purposefully kept the origin of silk a secret and, once it was out, carefully guarded their silkworms and their process of harvesting the silk.

The [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Justinian (r. 527- 565 CE), tired of paying the exorbitant prices the Chinese demanded for silk, sent two emissaries, disguised as monks, to China to steal silkworms and smuggle them back to the west. The plan was successful and initiated the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) silk industry. When the Byzantine Empire fell to the Turks in 1453 CE, the Ottoman Empire closed the ancient routes of the Silk Road and cut all ties with the west.

### The Silk Road Legacy

The greatest value of the Silk Road was the exchange of culture. Art, religion, [philosophy](https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/), technology, language, [science](https://www.worldhistory.org/science/), [architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/architecture/), and every other element of civilization was exchanged along these routes, carried with the commercial goods the merchants traded from country to country. Along this network disease traveled also, as evidenced in the spread of the bubonic [plague](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/plague/) of 542 CE which is thought to have arrived in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) by way of the Silk Road and which decimated the Byzantine Empire.

The closing of the Silk Road forced merchants to take to the sea to ply their trade, thus initiating the Age of Discovery which led to world-wide interaction and the beginnings of a global community. In its time, the Silk Road served to broaden people's understanding of the world they lived in; its closure would propel Europeans across the ocean to explore, and eventually [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/), the so-called New World of the Americas initiating the so-called [Columbian Exchange](https://www.worldhistory.org/Columbian_Exchange/) by which goods and values were passed between those of the Old World and those of the New, universally to the detriment of the indigengous people of the New World. In this way, the Silk Road can be said to have established the groundwork for the development of the modern world.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Bauer, S. W. *The History of the Ancient World.* W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/039305974X/)
- [Beckwith, C. I. *Empires of the Silk Road.* Princeton University Press, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0691150346/)
- [Durant, W. *Caesar and Christ.* Simon and Schuster, 1972.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B000TK5PNI/)
- [Ebrey, P. B. *The Cambridge Illustrated History of China.* Cambridge University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521124336/)
- [Grant, M. *The Climax of Rome.* Weidenfeld, 1993.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0297813919/)
- [Hansen, V. *The Silk Road.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195159314/)
- [Rodgers, N. *The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire.* Anness, 2008.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B008Q3M5YC/)
- [Strassler R. B. *The Landmark Herodotus.* Anchor Books, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1400031141/)

## About the Author

Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)

## Timeline

- **500 BCE - 330 BCE**: The [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/) rules in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), Persian Royal Road in use.
- **334 BCE - 323 BCE**: Period of the conquests of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **c. Jul 329 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) founds [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/)-Eschate on the [Iaxartes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Iaxartes/) and destroys Cyropolis.
- **260 BCE - 195 BCE**: King Euthydemus I of the [Greco-Bactrian Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greco-Bactria/) rules in Central Asia.
- **202 BCE - 220 CE**: The [Han Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) rules in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **c. 200 BCE**: First contact between [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) and the Greco-Bactrian descendents of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/)'s army.
- **171 BCE - 138 BCE**: Reign of Mithridates I of [Parthia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Parthia/).
- **138 BCE**: [Han](https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/) Emperor Wu the Great sends his emissary Zhang Qian to the west, initiating commerce.
- **130 BCE**: The [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/) is officially opened.
- **129 BCE**: Parthians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). The [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/) to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) is now controlled by the Parthians.
- **27 BCE - 14 CE**: Reign of [Augustus](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) in [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), Chinese [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/) is very popular.
- **161 CE - 180 CE**: Reign of Emperor [Marcus Aurelius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Aurelius/) in [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), Chinese [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/) popularity endures.
- **476 CE**: The [fall of the western Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/835/fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/).
- **527 CE - 565 CE**: Reign of Emperor Julian of the Eastern [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) ([Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/)) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). Beginning of Byzantine [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/) industry.
- **542 CE**: The bubonic [plague](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/plague/), thought to have been brought through the [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/), decimates [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).

## External Links

- [The Silk Road: Connecting the ancient world through trade - Shannon Harris Castelo](http://ed.ted.com/lessons/the-silk-road-history-s-first-world-wide-web-shannon-harris-castelo)
- [Tea if by sea, cha if by land: Why the world only has two words for tea](https://qz.com/1176962/map-how-the-word-tea-spread-over-land-and-sea-to-conquer-the-world/)
- [Digital Resources for the Silk Road in World History](https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/13.3/forum_02_maunu.html)
- [Trade Routes between Europe and Asia during Antiquity | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/trade/hd_trade.htm)
- [Exploring the Silk Roads | British Museum](https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/china/exploring-silk-roads)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, J. J. (2018, May 01). Silk Road. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk\_Road/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/)
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Silk Road." *World History Encyclopedia*, May 01, 2018. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk\_Road/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/).
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Silk Road." *World History Encyclopedia*, 01 May 2018, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk\_Road/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 01 May 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.