---
title: Sasanian Empire
author: Alonso Constenla Cervantes
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2023-01-10
---

# Sasanian Empire

_Authored by [Alonso Constenla Cervantes](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/Alco1992/)_

The Sasanian [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) (224-651 CE, also given as Sassanian, Sasanid or Sassanid) was the last pre-Islamic [Persian empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Persian_Empire/), established in 224 CE by Ardeshir I, son of Papak, descendant of Sasan. The Empire lasted until 651 CE when it was overthrown by the Arab [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/). It is considered by the Iranian people to be a highlight of their [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/) for, after the fall of the [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/) (c. 550-330 BCE) at the hands of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) in 330 BCE, [Persian culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Persian_Culture/) was sustained through the [Parthian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthia_(Empire)/) (247 BCE - 224 CE) and reached its height in the Sassanian Period; there was not to be another state that truly felt ”Iranian" after its fall.

After [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)'s [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) in 323 BCE, the Iranian Plateau fell into the hands of [Seleucus I Nicator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucos_I/) (r. 305-281 BCE), following the Wars of the Diadochoi (Alexander's generals). He established a [Hellenistic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenic_World/) state known as the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) (312-63 BCE), mainly on what is today the Islamic Republic of Iran, although at its height the Empire extended from modern-day [Turkey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/) to modern-day Pakistan. The Seleucids, although certainly influenced by the Iranian people over whom they ruled, still kept true to their Greco-Macedonian origins and hence were not seen as native rulers by their subjects.

By 155 BCE, the Parthians had conquered all of the Iranian territories of the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) Empire. The Parthians, a group of Northeastern Iranians, who, although certainly refreshing to their Iranian subjects, were still heavily influenced by Hellenistic [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/). They are mostly known to the European world as antagonists of the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/), and [Parthian culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthian_Culture/) is often neglected in history books. The Parthians themselves fell to [Ardashir I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ardashir_I/), who was a Persian for he came from the province of Fars (originally known as Pars, which is where the word Persian comes from) from where the Achaemenids came. He installed his own dynasty under the family name of his forefather Sasan.

The Sasanians then started a process that would reinstate the values of Iranian culture. Although certainly still Hellenized, the Sasanians started a process of "Iranization" unlike the Parthians before them: Zoroastrianism became one of the founding stones of the Empire - nevertheless religious minorities such as Jews, Christians, Manicheans, and other faiths of the Iranian people would play an important part. Some of the Sasanian kings even married Jewish and Christian [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/).

For 400 years the Sasanian Empire was the major power in the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/) as the rival of the Late [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) Empire. Not only that, but they sustained relations with the [Tang Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tang_Dynasty/) of [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) and several Indian Kingdoms where their products and culture were held in high esteem.

### Notable Monarchs of the Sasanian Empire

The Sasanian family has several possible origins related to the genealogy of the dynasty's founder Ardashir I who was born in 180 CE. These origins either link him to the Achaemenids or the Kayanids, both important to the Iranian identity. The first is a historical empire and dynasty, and the second is a mythological dynasty of kings deeply related to Zoroastrianism and Iranian mythological tradition.

Ardashir I, (l.180-240 CE, r. 224-240 CE) gave special importance to three things: centralization of power, installing Zoroastrianism as a state [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), and paying attention to the Persian rivalry with [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). This all meant big reforms. Centralization was an especially enormous task since the Parthians had kept a federative alliance of small kingdoms. Zoroastrianism, although always present, was now to be linked to the Empire's organization and became of great importance to the [Persian government](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persian_Government/) administration system, especially since the legitimacy of the system established by the Sasanians was based on their divine lineage. The wars with Rome at first seemed stagnant, being a game of push and pull between the two empires mostly in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) and [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/). Already reigning with his son [Shapur I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_I/), it would be the task of Shapur I to end this [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/).

[ ![Ardashir I](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/11783.jpg?v=1685804523) Ardashir I dynamosquito (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11783/ardashir-i/ "Ardashir I")Shapur I, (l. 215-270 CE, r. 240-270 CE) was a king mostly important for his ability to reaffirm Sasanian power in Iran and for his military prowess in fighting Rome. Although through most of the Sasanian Empire's history there would be a push and pull game in Mesopotamia and Armenia, Phillip the Arab ([Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/), r. 244-249 CE) would concede to Shapur I in order to secure his power over Rome, signing a treaty that would hand Armenia to [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). The Persian king, seeing the current weakness of the Roman Empire, continued his attacks and dealt a special blow to Roman morale by capturing Roman emperor [Valerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/valerian/). The information provided by the Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr ("Provincial Capitals of Iran") indentifies Shapur as a prolific [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) founder, which seems to have been the start of the Sasanian policy of [urbanization](https://www.worldhistory.org/urbanization/) identified by Touraj Daryaee in *Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire* ( 2009).

[Shapur II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_II/), (r. 309-379 CE) is said to have been crowned king in his mother's womb but this legend comes from his having been chosen as king shortly after his birth. His father was murdered and the nobles who were taking power decided to crown the newborn, whom they hoped to mold, rather than risk trusting the crown to any of his older brothers. He proved to be an energetic and imaginative leader, taking the empire to its greatest height up to that time, comitting the Zoroastrian scriptures to [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/), and expanding his territories by taking advantage of the weakened Roman Empire.

### Reign of [Kosrau I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kosrau_I/)

Kosrau I (l. c. 501-579 CE, r. 531-579 CE) is the most important and famous of the Sasanian kings. Successful in both military and administrative duties, he would become the Iranian ideal of a king. He would also feature prominently in Iranian [literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/). Kosrau's reforms were probably what continued to sustain the Sasanian Empire for the next 100 years. His tax reforms strengthened the court by eliminating the special privileges of the Grandees or Wuzurgans who ruled over their territories and who were able to tax the population and not tax themselves. By reforming this system, the state was able to provide a fixed tax that would help predict the amount of income received. Many of these reforms are believed by scholar Touraj Daryaee to be former projects of his father Kavad I (r. 488-496, 498-531 CE), during whose reign massive revolts and the appearance of Mazdakism (a lower class favoring cult) were encouraged by Kavad to weaken the nobles.

[Persian warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persian_Warfare/) and the military saw great reforms as well, mostly directed at addressing the many borders of the empire. The Sasanian Empire had the Romans to the west, the [Huns](https://www.worldhistory.org/Huns/) to the east, and the Arabs to the south, all of which required a military capable of reacting quickly, so the empire was divided into four regions, each controlled by a general. As for most Sasanian kings, the wars with Rome continued in an endless push and pull, mostly favorable to the Sasanians, as the Romans and then the Byzantines would be busy with the Germanic invasions.

Probably the most important of Kosrau's achievements was seeking knowledge and the special attention given to the Academy of Gundeshapur. This academy was one of the most important centers of learning in the world's history as it sought texts from all of the neighbouring countries, from [Greek philosophers](https://www.worldhistory.org/collection/118/the-greek-philosophers/), to Iranian religious texts, and Indian works as well, translating them not only to Middle Persian but also [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) and other languages - a scholarly knowledge later inherited by the Arabs, and then passed to European culture.

[ ![Statue of Kosrau I in Tehran courthouse](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1183.jpg?v=1776882505) Statue of Kosrau I in Tehran courthouse مانفی (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1183/statue-of-kosrau-i-in-tehran-courthouse/ "Statue of Kosrau I in Tehran courthouse")### [Yazdegerd III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yazdegerd_III/) - the Last Sasanian king

The last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III (624-651 CE, r. 632 to 651 CE) ascended the throne when he was only eight years old. Due to the chaotic situation of the Empire, the king was actually crowned not in the capital but in the province of [Persis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persis/), the original home of the Sasanian dynasty. He ruled during the time of the Muslim invasion of the Sasanian Empire and had to move from province to province in order to gather resources and be able to fight against the invading Arabs.

During 629 to 630 CE, the Sasanian Empire suffered the loss of Yemen, Oman, and Bahrain; soon after, in 633 CE, the Sasanian client state of Hira was taken as well and thus a buffer state between the Iranians and the Arabs was removed. In 633 CE the Sasanian army was defeated by the Muslim army at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of D'at al-Salasel. More defeats followed, and by 634 CE, Sawad (the name used in early Islamic times for southern Iraq) came under Muslim control. In 636 CE at the battle of Madār, Sasanian forces completely lost southern Mesopotamia to the Arab army. Finally in 637 CE the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah took place in which the Iranian general Rostam ī Farroxzad and most of his army were killed.

The king fled the capital and moved toward Ray, but soon after, in 640 CE, the Arabs managed to take over the heartland of Iran and the king had no choice but to move further toward the east. After the serious insurrections of the eastern provinces of Sēstān and Kermān also resulted in defeat, the ruler (Marzbān) of Marw refused to help the runaway king. Yazdegerd III is believed to have been murdered by a local miller near Marw in 651 CE.

The Sasanian empire came under Arab control, but Persian cultural heritage continued as an enduring influence in the emerging Muslim world.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [ARDAŠĪR I i. History – Encyclopaedia Iranica](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ardasir-i "ARDAŠĪR I i. History – Encyclopaedia Iranica"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Daryaee, T. *Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire.* I.B. Tauris, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1780763786/)
- [Farrokh, K. *Shadows in the Desert.* Osprey Publishing, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1846031087/)
- [Katouzian, H. *The Persians: Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Iran.* Yale University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0300169329/)

## Timeline

- **c. 211 CE**: Ardashir, king (malakh) of [Persis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persis/), revolts against the Parthians and founds the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
- **224 CE**: Sasanians overthrow the Parthians.
- **224 CE - 240 CE**: Reign of [Ardashir I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ardashir_I/), who reformed the [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) by centralizing power, making [Zoroastrianism](https://www.worldhistory.org/zoroastrianism/) state [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), and rivalling [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **240 CE - 270 CE**: Reign of [Shapur I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_I/), who first brought the [Sassanian empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) to its peak.
- **252 CE**: The [Sasanid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) invades the Kingdom of [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/).
- **260 CE**: [Shapur I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_I/) captures the [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Valerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/valerian/) at [Edessa](https://www.worldhistory.org/edessa/).
- **309 CE - 379 CE**: Reign of [Shapur II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_II/); greatest king since [Shapur I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shapur_I/).
- **368 CE - 369 CE**: The [Sasanid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) destroys several [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) in the kingdom of [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/).
- **c. 387 CE**: [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) Theodosius I and Shapur III of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) agree to formally divide [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) between the Eastern [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) ([Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/)) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) and the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
- **c. 428 CE - 652 CE**: [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) rules one half of [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) as the Marzpanate, that is with marzpan viceroys.
- **451 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Avarayr between Armenian forces and those of the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
- **484 CE**: The Treaty of Nvarsak is signed between [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) and [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) giving the latter a greater political autonomy and freedom of religious thought.
- **503 CE**: Kavad, king of the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/), unsuccessfully besieges [Edessa](https://www.worldhistory.org/edessa/).
- **531 CE - 579 CE**: Reign of [Kosrau I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kosrau_I/) of the [Sassanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
- **533 CE**: [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/) defeats the Persians to the east of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) of [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **544 CE**: Chosroes I, king of the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/), unsuccessfully besieges [Edessa](https://www.worldhistory.org/edessa/). n
- **607 CE - 627 CE**: East [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **632 CE - 651 CE**: Reign of [Yazdegerd III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yazdegerd_III/), the last king of the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
- **651 CE**: Arab [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/) conquers the [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).

## External Links

- [List of Rulers of the Sasanian Empire | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/saru/hd_saru.htm)
- [The Sasanian Empire (224–651 A.D.) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sass/hd_sass.htm)
- [1,300-Year-Old Letter Between Family Members Found in Iran](https://mymodernmet.com/sassanid-scroll-iran/)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Cervantes, A. C. (2013, May 17). Sasanian Empire. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/)
### Chicago
Cervantes, Alonso Constenla. "Sasanian Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, May 17, 2013. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).
### MLA
Cervantes, Alonso Constenla. "Sasanian Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, 17 May 2013, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Alonso Constenla Cervantes](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/Alco1992/ "User Page: Alonso Constenla Cervantes"), published on 17 May 2013. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.