--- title: Roman Warfare author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Warfare/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2023-07-03 --- # Roman Warfare _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) was remarkably successful over many centuries and across many territories. This was due to several important factors. [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) was a peninsula not easily attacked, there was a huge pool of fighting men to draw upon, a disciplined and innovative army, a centralised command and line of supply, expert engineers, and effective diplomacy through a network of allies. Further, [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/)’s allies not only supplied, equipped and paid for additional men but they also supplied vital materials such as grain and ships. In addition, the Romans had an inclusive approach to conquered peoples which allowed for the strengthening and broadening of the Roman power and logistical bases. On top of all this, Rome was more or less in a continuous state of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) or readiness for it and believed absolutely in the necessity of defending and imposing on others what she firmly believed was her cultural superiority. ### Ready For War In Roman [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) martial values were highly regarded and war was a source of prestige for the ruling class where career progression came from successful military endeavour. Indeed, conflict in Roman culture went right back to the origins of Rome and the mythical [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) between [Romulus and Remus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romulus_and_Remus/). This thirst for war combined with what [Polybius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polybius/) stated as 'inexhaustible resources in supplies and men' meant that Rome would become a terrible and formidable foe for the peoples of the [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/) and beyond. However, there were also times when Romans more than met their match - such as against [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/), [Parthia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Parthia/) and the Germanic tribes - or when Romans fought Romans such as the civil wars between [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) and [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) or [Vitellius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vitellius/) against [Otho](https://www.worldhistory.org/Otho/), and then the carnage of ancient warfare reached even greater proportions. In the Republic declaration of war was in theory in the hands of the people but in practice the decision to raise arms was decided by the Senate. From [Augustus](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) onwards the decision became the Emperor's alone. Once military action was decided upon certain rituals had to be performed such as sacrifices and divination to find favourable omens and the *supplicatio* rite where prayers and offerings were offered at each of the major gods' temples. ### Structure & Command of the [Roman Army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) The Roman army left its [mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Mark/) wherever it went, creating roads, depots and bases. Involving men from the age of 16 to 60, it was a conduit for the Romanisation of conquered lands and one of the main carriers of foreign cultural influence back on Rome itself. Either or both of the two consuls conducted war on the battlefield although command could also rest in the hands of a [praetor](https://www.worldhistory.org/praetor/) or pro-magistrate with imperium who, otherwise, commanded individual legions. If both consuls were present they rotated command each day. In the Imperial period the emperor himself could lead the army. Tribunes and Legates could also command a legion or subsidiary detachments and each maniple of 200 men was commanded by a prior and posterior [centurion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Centurion/) (the former being senior), resulting in around 60 centurions per legion. [ ![Organization of the Imperial Roman Army](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/17572.png?v=1767864213-1767864287) Organization of the Imperial Roman Army Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17572/organization-of-the-imperial-roman-army/ "Organization of the Imperial Roman Army")In the early Republican period troop formation followed the example of the [Greek phalanx](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/110/the-greek-phalanx/) but from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE the tactics for infantry deployment changed. The largest unit in the Roman army was the legion of 4,200 men divided into 30 divisions or maniples which were now each deployed in three lines (*hastati*, *principes*, and *triarii* who were the veterans) arranged as in a checkerboard (*quincunx*). Another 800 to 1200 light-armed soldiers (*velites*), often from Rome's allies, took position in front of the legion with 300 cavalry positioned in support. These two groups were used as a protective screen for the heavy infantry legions and they also harried the enemy from the flanks when the enemy met the legions head on. In the 1st century BCE both disappeared from the army but the cavalry did make a comeback in the Imperial period. Specialist mercenary troops with skills the Romans lacked might also be employed such as Cretan archers and slingers from [Rhodes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rhodes/). The maniples were mobile, disciplined in their close formation and they could rotate their engagement with the enemy to allow fresh troops into the battle. Manoeuvrability was also aided by the adoption of lighter weaponry - the short sword or *[gladius Hispaniensis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gladius_Hispaniensis/)*, the pilum javelin instead of the traditional heavy spear, and the central-handled, concave shield or scutum. In addition, it came to be recognised that terrain could be an important factor in aiding or hindering troop movements. Troops were also trained to use these weapons well and to carry out complicated battle manoeuvres, although the duration and intensity of training was very much down to individual commanders. From 100 BCE (or perhaps even earlier) the maniple was abandoned and instead a legion was divided into 10 cohorts of 4-500 men which would remain the basic Roman tactical unit. In this period, legions also took on permanent names and identities and were equipped by the state. In 167 BCE there were 8 legions but by 50 BCE this number had risen to around 15 legions. Augustus in c. 31 BCE created for the first time a permanent and fully professional army with a central command and logistics structure resulting in a permanent force of 300,000 men paving the way for the huge armies of later centuries when there were 25-30 legions across the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). In 6 CE the emperor also created a treasury specifically for the military (*aerarium militare*) which was funded by taxes and allowed for a system of retirement benefits. Another of Augustus' policies was to ensure loyalty by carefully restricting positions of command to the Imperial clique. ### Motivating the Troops All troops swore an oath of allegiance, the *sacramentum*, to the emperor himself. This was a major factor in ensuring loyalty but it also encouraged the discipline - *disciplina militaris* - for which the Roman armed forces had become famous since the early Republic and which was directly responsible for many a victory on the battlefield. Discipline was further ensured through a system of rewards and punishments. Soldiers could receive distinctions, money, booty, and promotion for displaying courage and initiative. However, a lack of rewards and excessively long service without leave could cause grievances which sometimes developed into mutiny. Punishment came in many forms and could be implemented due to mutinous dissent but also a lack of courage in battle. In particular, the punishment of decimation was usually reserved for cowardice, for example, abandoning the body of a fallen commander. This involved lots being drawn and every tenth man being clubbed to [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) by the other nine. Other punishments included loss of booty, pay or rank, flogging, dishonourable discharge, being sold into slavery or even execution. The principle was that by breaking one's oath of allegiance, one lost all of one's rights. [ ![Centurion](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2736.jpg?v=1747114805) Centurion Luc Viatour / www.Lucnix.be (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2736/centurion/ "Centurion")### Strategies [Julius](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Julius/) [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/)'s *Commentaries on the Gallic War* describes the great commander's attention to logistics, decisiveness and appearance of confidence and their positive effect on the morale of the troops. He also records the importance of innovation, patriotism, discipline and fortune. In addition, a commander could greatly strengthen his chances of success before the battle by gathering military intelligence of the enemy from captives, dissenters and deserters. Commanders could hold (as Caesar himself did) a *consilium* or war council with their officers to present and discuss strategies for attack and utilise the experience of veteran campaigners. It would be a combination of all of these factors that would ensure [Roman military](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) dominance for centuries. There were important defeats along the way but it is interesting to observe that commanders often escaped repercussions for their military incompetence and it was usually the soldiers who bore the blame for defeat. Roman commanders generally preferred an aggressive and full-frontal attack (albeit preceded by suitable reconnaissance by a scouting vanguard of *exploratores* troops) whilst terror and revenge tactics were also used to subdue local populations, a strategy mixed with *clementia* - accepting hostages and promises of peace from the enemy. From the 1st century BCE there was an increase in the use of battlefield fortifications and entrenchments and sieges. From the 3rd century CE defence of the empire's borders became a priority and led to the fortification of [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) and a more mobile deployment of smaller units of troops (*vexillationes*) of between 500 and 1,000 men. This was largely due to enemy forces being wary of full-on attacks with the formidable Romans and so preferring guerrilla tactics. Julius Caesar was also a great proponent of sieges and they did present certain advantages. An opposing force could be severely reduced in one blow, the local population could be suitably terrorised into accepting Rome as their new master and a readymade stronghold could be acquired if successful. [ ![Roman Ballista Reconstruction](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2284.jpg?v=1747114808) Roman Ballista Reconstruction Oren Rozen (GNU FDL) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2284/roman-ballista-reconstruction/ "Roman Ballista Reconstruction")### Sieges In a typical siege forces were sent ahead to surround the settlement to be attacked and prevent anyone escaping. The main force would build a fortified camp out of missile range from the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) and preferably on high ground, which provided a good vantage point to observe inside the settlement and pick out key targets such as water supply. Once the attack began, the defender's walls could be overcome by building a ramp up against them using trees, earth and rocks. Whilst this was being done the attackers would be protected by temporary covers and a covering fire from batteries of torsion catapults, bolt-firers, stone-throwers and archers. The defenders could try to extend the height of the [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) section under attack and even add towers. The attackers could also attack the walls with heavy rams (suspended on a framework) and also use siege towers. The defenders threw everything they could down on the attackers such as burning oil, burning pieces of wood and rocks and they could also try to undermine the siege ramps and towers by tunnelling, a technique the attackers might also employ to undermine the defensive walls. Generally, once conquered, only the [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) and children could hope to survive as an example had to be set of the futility of prolonged resistance. ### Logistics The Imperial army on the march was first and foremost well-ordered. Besides legionaries, the troop could include cavalry, archers, auxiliaries, artillery, rams, standard bearers, trumpeters, servants, baggage mules, blacksmiths, engineers, surveyors, and road builders. When the army reached its destination it made a fortified camp and the logistical skills of the Romans meant that they could be supplied independent of the local territory, especially in terms of food. Once supplies had reached a camp they were stored in purpose-built warehouse (*horrea*) which, constructed on stilts and well ventilated, better preserved perishable goods. Food stores were protected against their number one enemy - the black rat - by using cats, which were, for the same reason, also used on ships. One particular innovation of the Imperial period was the introduction of doctors (*medici*) and medical assistants (*capsarii*), who were attached to most military units. There were even army hospitals (*valetudinarium*) within the fortified camps. [ ![Naval Landing](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/1341.jpg?v=1773661336) Naval Landing The Creative Assembly (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1341/naval-landing/ "Naval Landing")### Naval Warfare Roman naval tactics differed little from the methods employed by the Greeks. Vessels were propelled by rowers and sail to transport troops and in naval battles the vessels became battering rams using their [bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/)-wrapped rams fixed on the ship's prow. Rome had employed naval vessels from the early Republic but it was in 260 BCE that they built their first significant navy, a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes, in response to the threat from Carthage. Quinqueremes, with five banks of rowers, were fitted with a bridge used to hold enemy vessels so that they could be boarded, a device known as the *corvus* (raven). The Romans eventually defeated the Carthaginian fleet, largely because they were able to replace lost ships and men quicker. Rome once more amassed a fleet when Pompey attacked Pamphylia and [Cilicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cilicia/) in 67 BCE (a campaign identified with the suppression of [piracy](https://www.worldhistory.org/Piracy/) by [Plutarch](https://www.worldhistory.org/plutarch/)) and again in 36 BCE when [Marcus Agrippa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Agrippa/) amassed almost 400 vessels to attack [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) and the fleet of Sextus Pompeius Magnus. Some of [Agrippa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Agrippa/)'s ships had the new grappling hook launched by a catapult which, with a winch, was used to draw in an enemy ship for boarding. In 31 BCE there occurred the major naval battle near Actium between the fleets of [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) and [Mark Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) and [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/). Following victory, the new emperor Augustus established two fleets - the *classis Ravennatium* based at Ravenna and the *classis Misenatium* based at Misenum, which operated until the 4th century CE. There were also fleets based at [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/), [Antioch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antiochia/), Rhodes, Sicily, Libya and [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) as well as one operating on the Rhine and another two on the Danube. These fleets allowed Rome to quickly respond to any military needs throughout the empire and to supply the army in its various campaigns. Fleets were commanded by a prefect (*praefectus*) appointed by the emperor. The captain of a vessel held centurion rank or the title of *trierarchus*. Fleets were based at fortified ports such as Portus Julius in Campania which included artificial harbours and lagoons connected by tunnels. Crews of Roman military vessels were, in reality, more soldiers than sailors as they were expected to act as light-armed land troops when necessary. They were typically recruited locally and drawn from the poorer classes but could also include prisoners of war and slaves. [ ![Roman Victory Procession](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/1214.jpg?v=1762529067) Roman Victory Procession The Creative Assembly (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1214/roman-victory-procession/ "Roman Victory Procession")### Victor's Spoils Victory in battle brought new territory, acquired wealth and resources, persuaded enemies to sue for peace and sent a clear message that Rome would defend her frontiers, that she had an insatiable thirst for expansion and provided irrefutable evidence of just how formidable a fighting machine the Romans could present on the battlefield. In the Republic enemy arms could be burned and offerings made to the gods, especially [Mars](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mars/), [Minerva](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minerva/) and [Vulcan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vulcan/). Victorious commanders returned to Rome as heroes in a grand triumphal procession and there were over 300 of them over the centuries. The [triumph](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Triumph/) was first approved and paid for by the Senate. The commander entered the city riding a [chariot](https://www.worldhistory.org/chariot/) in a sumptuous procession which included captives, treasures such as [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) and works of art, and even exotic animals from the territory of the victory. He wore purple robes (*toga picta* and *tunica palmata*) and a crown of laurel, held an ivory sceptre and laurel branch and had a slave standing behind him who held a gold crown over his head and whispered, 'Look behind' (*Respice*) to remind him of the dangers of pride and arrogance. From the Augustan period only emperors could enjoy a triumph but, in any case, the practice became much less frequent. Victorious commanders also used the spoils of war to beautify Rome, for example, Pompey's [theatre](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/theatre/), Augustus' forum and [Vespasian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vespasian/)'s [Colosseum](https://www.worldhistory.org/Colosseum/). Other architectural celebrations of victory included obelisks and columns but perhaps the most striking monument to Roman military vanity was the [triumphal arch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Triumphal_Arch/), the largest and most decorative being that of [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) in Rome. ### Conclusion Rome's armed forces were the state's largest single expense but the captured territory, resources, wealth and slaves and the later necessity for frontier defence meant that war was an unavoidable Roman preoccupation. Great successes in battle could be enjoyed but so too, defeats could rock Rome to its foundations as able opponents began to use Rome's winning strategies to their own advantage. Further, as Rome's military prowess became more and more well known it would become increasingly difficult for the Roman military to directly engage the enemy. However, over many centuries and across three continents, the Romans had demonstrated that a well-trained, well-disciplined military, if fully exploited by gifted commanders, could reap vast rewards and it would not be until a millennium after its fall that warfare would return to the scale and professionalism that Rome had brought to the field of combat. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Barchiesi, A. *The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199211523/) - [Caesar. *The Conquest of Gaul.* Penguin Classics, 1983.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0140444335/) - [Campbell, B. (ed). *The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195304659/) - [Hornblower, S. *The Oxford Classical Dictionary.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199545561/) - [Oleson, J.P. *The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199734852/) - [Potter, D.S. (ed). *A Companion to the Roman Empire.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1405199180/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **750 BCE - 510 BCE**: The semi-legendary celeres or trossuli - a 300-man cavalry corps which the first kings of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) incorporated into the legion - is formed, later their number is increased to 600. - **578 BCE - 535 BCE**: Servius Tullius, the king of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), increases the number of the cavalry corps (equites) to 1,800. - **c. 508 BCE**: [Lars Porsenna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lars_Porsenna/), [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) king of [Chiusi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Chiusi/), lays siege to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **498 BCE - 493 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the Latins. - **437 BCE - 435 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) [Veii](https://www.worldhistory.org/Veii/) in the Veientine [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/); the Etruscan king Lars Tolumnius is killed. - **c. 400 BCE**: The [Roman cavalry](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Cavalry/) is expanded to include riders who can pay for their own horse. - **396 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) sacks the [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) town of [Veii](https://www.worldhistory.org/Veii/) after a ten-year siege. - **396 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) expansion begins with the capture of [Veii](https://www.worldhistory.org/Veii/) from the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/). - **390 BCE**: Gauls sack [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **c. 390 BCE**: "Gallic Catastrophe:" [Brennus](https://www.worldhistory.org/brennus/) of the Senones defeats the Romans at Allia, and subsequently sacks [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **356 BCE**: 307 [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) prisoners are sacrificed in the forum of the [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Tarquinia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tarquinia/). - **343 BCE - 341 BCE**: First Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ([Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) vs. Samnites). - **326 BCE - 304 BCE**: Second Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **298 BCE - 290 BCE**: Third Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). Victory for [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), peace with the [Etruscans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/). - **298 BCE - 290 BCE**: Third Samnite [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) between [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and the Samnite people. - **297 BCE**: [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites join forces and defeat the Romans at Camertium. - **c. 295 BCE**: In a [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) lasting all day, Romans narrowly defeat a force of [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) and Samnites at Sentinum. - **295 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory over Samnites, Gauls and Umbrians at Sentinum. - **294 BCE**: A [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) led by L. Postimius Megellus defeats an army from [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) [Volsinii](https://www.worldhistory.org/volsinii/). - **285 BCE - 282 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats the [Celts](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). Rome's dominance in central Italy is secured. - **284 BCE**: Gauls of the Insubres and Boii tribes defeat the Romans at [Arretium](https://www.worldhistory.org/arretium/). - **283 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) decisively defeats the Senones at Picenum. - **280 BCE**: The Romans [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Tarquinia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tarquinia/), [Volsinii](https://www.worldhistory.org/volsinii/) and [Vulci](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vulci/). - **280 BCE - 275 BCE**: King [Pyrrhus](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyrrhus/) of Epirus wages the Pyrrhic [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) against the Romans in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/), defence of [Tarentum](https://www.worldhistory.org/tarentum/) being the pretext. - **280 BCE - 272 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) against [Tarentum](https://www.worldhistory.org/tarentum/). [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Tarentum. Rome's dominance in lower [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) is secured. - **Jul 280 BCE**: [Pyrrhus](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyrrhus/) defeats the Romans at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Heraclea. - **279 BCE**: [Pyrrhus](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyrrhus/) defeats the Romans at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Asculum. - **275 BCE**: The Romans defeat [Pyrrhus](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyrrhus/) of Epirus at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Maleventum. - **273 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers the [Etruscan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Etruscan_Civilization/) town of [Cerveteri](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cerveteri/). - **264 BCE**: The Mamertines at Messana on [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) call for Carthaginian and then [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) help in defence against [Syracuse](https://www.worldhistory.org/syracuse/), sparking the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **264 BCE - 241 BCE**: [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) cedes [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **262 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) besieges and sacks [Agrigento](https://www.worldhistory.org/agrigento/) on [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) in one of the first actions of the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **260 BCE**: First [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) naval victory against [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) off Mylae in the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **260 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) builds a fleet of 120 ships in just 60 days to fight the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **258 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) wins a naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) against [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) at Sulcis during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **256 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) naval victory against [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) off Ecnomus during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **256 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) lands an army of four legions on African soil at Clupea during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **256 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) wins a land [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) south of Tunis during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **255 BCE**: A Carthaginain army led by the mercenary Spartan commander Xanthippus defeats two [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) legions near Tunis during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **255 BCE - 253 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) fleets are wrecked by storms off Pachynus and Palinurus during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **c. 250 BCE - c. 200 CE**: Originally a Celtiberian weapon, the [Gladius Hispaniensis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gladius_Hispaniensis/) was commonly used by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) soldiers for more than four centuries. - **Jun 250 BCE**: A [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) led by Hasdrubal is defeated by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [consul](https://www.worldhistory.org/Consul/) Metellus near Palermo in the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **249 BCE**: [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) defeats [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) in a naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) at Drepanum during the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **241 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) naval victory off the Aegates Islands leads to victory over [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/), ending the [First Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Punic_War/). - **229 BCE - 228 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) fights Illyrian pirates. Queen Teuta pays tribute to Rome. - **223 BCE**: Romans successfully campaign against [Celtic](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) tribes of Cisalpine [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). - **222 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquers Cisalpine [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/) (modern-day Provence, France). - **219 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) crosses the Ebro river in Spain and sacks the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Saguntum](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saguntum/), [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/)'s ally, sparking off the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/). - **218 BCE - 201 BCE**: [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/). - **Mar 218 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) declares [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) on [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) after [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) sacks [Saguntum](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saguntum/) in Spain. The [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/) begins. - **Apr 218 BCE - May 218 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) leaves Spain to cross the Pyrenees and Alps into [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **Nov 218 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Ticinus. - **Dec 218 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Trebia. - **Jun 217 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Lake Trasimene. - **Aug 216 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) wins the [battle of Cannae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Cannae/), the worst defeat in [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) history. - **215 BCE**: A [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) led by Hasdrubal is defeated at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Ibera in Spain. - **214 BCE - 205 BCE**: First Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats Philip V of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/). - **212 BCE**: A [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) is defeated in [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) by a [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) led by Marcellus. [Syracuse](https://www.worldhistory.org/syracuse/) falls to [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) who now control the island. - **211 BCE**: A [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) defeats two [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) consuls and their armies in the Tader valley, Spain. - **210 BCE - 207 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) conquers Spain for [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **209 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) captures the Carthaginian base and treasury [Carthago Nova](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthago_Nova/) in southern Spain. - **208 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) defeats a [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) led by Hasdrubal at Baecula in Spain. - **207 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/), harassed by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) forces, is reduced to controlling only Bruttium in southern [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **c. 22 Jun 207 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats a [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Metaurus. - **206 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) wins the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Ilipa in Spain. - **204 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) sails to North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) in the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/). - **204 BCE - 203 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) wins two battles and besieges [Utica](https://www.worldhistory.org/Utica/) in North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **203 BCE**: Carthaginian commander Mago is unable to join forces with [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) and his army is defeated in Cisalpine [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). - **203 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) defeats a [Carthaginian army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carthaginian_Army/) led by Hasdrubal in North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **203 BCE**: [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/) is recalled from [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) to defend [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) against [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/). - **19 Oct 202 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Zama: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) defeats [Hannibal](https://www.worldhistory.org/hannibal/), ending the [Second Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Punic_War/). - **200 BCE - 196 BCE**: Second Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory. - **197 BCE**: Romans are victorious over Philip V of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) at Cynoscephalae. - **194 BCE**: Romans defeat Antiochus III at [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Magnesia. - **193 BCE**: The Boii are defeated by the Romans, suffering, according to [Livy](https://www.worldhistory.org/livy/), 14,000 dead. - **190 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Magnesia ad Sipylum, disastrous defeat for [Antiochos](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/antiochos/) III against Romans. - **172 BCE - 168 BCE**: Third Macedonian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/): [Perseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perseus/) of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) challenges [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and is defeated. - **Jun 168 BCE**: Romans defeat [Perseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perseus/) of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) at Pydna. - **150 BCE**: The Lusitani are betrayed and slaughtered by the Romans. - **149 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) sends an army of 80,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry to attack [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/). - **149 BCE - 146 BCE**: [Third Punic War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Third_Punic_War/). - **148 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) siege of [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/), in its second year, remains unsuccessful. - **147 BCE**: [Viriathus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Viriathus/) leads the Lusitani in victory against the Romans. - **146 BCE**: [Viriathus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Viriathus/) leads the Lusitani to a second victory against a [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/), capturing Segobriga in Spain. - **146 BCE**: [Scipio Africanus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Scipio_Africanus/) the Younger sacks [Carthage](https://www.worldhistory.org/carthage/) and enslaves its population. - **133 BCE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) captures Numantia. End of Iberian resistance. - **113 BCE**: Romans defeated at Noreia by the [Cimbri](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cimbri/). - **107 BCE - 100 BCE**: [Gaius Marius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gaius_Marius/) reforms the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/). - **c. 100 BCE**: [Roman cavalry](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Cavalry/) riders are by now classified as auxilia and organised in wings or alae. - **88 BCE - 63 BCE**: Mithridates of Pontus fights three wars to free [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) from [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **86 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Sulla](https://www.worldhistory.org/sulla/) sacks [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) and the port of [Piraeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Piraeus/). - **82 BCE - 80 BCE**: [Volterra](https://www.worldhistory.org/Volterra/) is besieged and sacked by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Sulla](https://www.worldhistory.org/sulla/). - **69 BCE**: Licinius Lucullus leads a [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) which defeats Armenian king [Tigranes II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tigranes_the_Great/) and his capital [Tigranocerta](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tigranocerta/) is captured. [Artashat](https://www.worldhistory.org/Artashat/) becomes the capital again. - **67 BCE**: [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) assembles a naval fleet and attacks Pamphylia and [Cilicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cilicia/), principally to repress [piracy](https://www.worldhistory.org/Piracy/). - **66 BCE**: [Pompey the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) attacks the Armenian kingdom of [Tigranes II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tigranes_the_Great/) and makes it a [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) protectorate. - **63 BCE**: The [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) defeats the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) Antiochus XIII and incorporates [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) as a province of the [Roman empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). - **58 BCE**: [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) attacks the Helvetii while on migration and defeats them. - **58 BCE - 51 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/). - **57 BCE**: A [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/) under [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/) narrowly defeats an army of Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui. - **56 BCE**: The navies of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) and the Veneti Gauls clash resulting in a [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) victory. This is the first recorded naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) in the Atlantic Ocean. - **55 BCE - 54 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/)'s expeditions in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **53 BCE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general [Marcus Licinius Crassus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus/) compels [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) to provide troops for his campaigns against [Parthia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Parthia/). - **53 BCE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Carrhae. [Crassus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus/) is captured and executed by the Parthians. - **52 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) is defeated at Gergovia by [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/). - **52 BCE**: After becoming trapped and besieged at Alesia, [Vercingetorix](https://www.worldhistory.org/vercingetorix/) surrenders to [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/). - **49 BCE**: [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/) besieges [Massilia](https://www.worldhistory.org/massilia/). - **38 BCE**: [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) amasses a naval fleet to defeat Sextus [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/). - **36 BCE**: [Agrippa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Marcus_Agrippa/) defeats the naval fleet of Sextus [Pompey](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/) in the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Naulochos. - **2 Sep 31 BCE**: The [Battle of Actium](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Actium/). [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) defeats [Mark Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) and [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/). - **27 BCE - 19 BCE**: Cantabrian Wars: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the Iberian Penninsula. - **6 CE**: [Augustus](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/) creates the aerarium militare, a treasury drawn from taxes in order to fund a professional [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/). - **9 CE**: The Rhine River is established as the boundary between the Latin and German speaking worlds, following the defeat of the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/), under the command of Varus, at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of the Teutoburg Forest. - **15 CE**: [Germanicus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Germanicus/) leads 12,000 men across the Rhine to attack the Chatti. - **43 CE**: [Claudius](https://www.worldhistory.org/claudius/) commences the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **43 CE**: Maiden Castle, a [Celtic](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) hilltop fort in southern [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/), is captured by [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) legions. - **54 CE - 60 CE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) general Corbulo successfully campaigns in [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/). - **58 CE - 63 CE**: [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/)-Parthian [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **60 CE - 61 CE**: [Boudicca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boudicca/)'s Revolt in [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **70 CE**: The [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Jerusalem](https://www.worldhistory.org/jerusalem/) is besieged and captured by [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/); the Second [Temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) destroyed. - **75 CE - 77 CE**: Romans defeat the last of the Northern tribes; [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) complete. - **101 CE - 106 CE**: [Trajan](https://www.worldhistory.org/trajan/) conquers [Dacia](https://www.worldhistory.org/dacia/). - **114 CE**: [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Trajan](https://www.worldhistory.org/trajan/) annexes [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) and declares [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) on [Parthia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Parthia/). - **167 CE - 180 CE**: Marcomannic Wars. - **192 CE**: Emperor [Commodus](https://www.worldhistory.org/commodus/) is murdered, civil [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) ensues (until 197 CE). - **195 CE**: First Parthian [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). - **232 CE**: Emperor [Maximinus Thrax](https://www.worldhistory.org/Maximinus_Thrax/) commands a legion in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/). - **293 CE**: Emperor Carausius assassinated by Allectus. - **312 CE**: [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) defeats Maxentius at Milvian Bridge. - **Sep 324 CE**: [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis. - **367 CE**: [Picts](https://www.worldhistory.org/picts/), Scots, [Saxons](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saxons/), and [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) attack the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). - **402 CE**: [Alaric](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alaric/) invades [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **410 CE**: The Romans withdraw from [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/). - **24 Aug 410 CE**: [Alaric](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alaric/) sacks [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **455 CE**: [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) sack [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). - **488 CE - 493 CE**: [Theodoric the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theodoric_the_Great/) of the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **536 CE - 562 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/). - **607 CE - 627 CE**: East [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). ## Questions & Answers ### What tactics did the Romans use? The Roman army used many different tactics in warfare. Roman infantry was deployed in maniples or cohorts in blocks like a chessboard. Roman maniples aggressively attacked from the front and side, usually protecting themselves with their shields to form a "tortoise" that could move across the battlefield and resist enemy fire. The Romans also used military intelligence, subterfuge, and siege warfare to better their enemies. ### Who did the Romans fight? The Romans fought many other cultures as they expanded their empire. They fought and defeated other Italian tribes, Gauls in western Europe, the Carthaginians in North Africa, and Celtic Britons in Britain. The Romans also fought, but with less success, the Germanic tribes in northern Europe and the Parthians in the Middle East. ### Why was the Roman army so effective? The Roman army was effective because it was composed of well-trained, well-armed, and disciplined professional troops. Roman commanders employed a wide variety of tactics on the battlefield, they used military intelligence and adapted the more successful elements of their enemies' warfare. Roman warfare was also successful because of excellent logistics. ### Did the Romans lose any wars? The Romans had many successes but they did sometimes lose. Notable losses came against the Germanic tribes and the Parthians. In both cases, the Romans underestimated their enemy and the difficulties of the local conditions. ## External Links - [A day in the life of a Roman soldier - Robert Garland](https://ed.ted.com/lessons/a-day-in-the-life-of-a-roman-soldier-robert-garland) - [Decimation: The Brutal Military Punishment Of Ancient Rome](https://allthatsinteresting.com/decimation-punishment) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2013, October 22). Roman Warfare. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Warfare/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Roman Warfare." *World History Encyclopedia*, October 22, 2013. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Warfare/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Roman Warfare." *World History Encyclopedia*, 22 Oct 2013, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Warfare/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 22 October 2013. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.