---
title: Robert E. Lee: General-in-Chief of the Southern Confederacy
author: Harrison W. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2025-08-05
---

# Robert E. Lee: General-in-Chief of the Southern Confederacy

_Authored by [Harrison W. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/harrisonwmark/)_

Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) was the most prominent Confederate general of the [American Civil War](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/) (1861-1865), who commanded the Army of Northern Virginia for much of the [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) and was named general-in-chief of all Confederate forces in 1865. Lee was beloved by his men, leading them to a string of brilliant victories in the campaigns of 1862. His defeat at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Gettysburg (1-3 July 1863) is often considered a turning point in the war, since after that, Lee always had to stay on the defensive. His surrender at Appomattox Court House on 9 April 1865 is often regarded as the end of the war. Today, Lee is certainly one of the best-known and most controversial military figures in US history.

### Early Life

Robert Edward Lee was born on 19 January 1807 at his family's estate of Stratford Hall in Westmoreland County, Virginia. He was a scion of the Lee family of Virginia, one of the most prominent planter dynasties in the commonwealth, whose members included two signers of the [Declaration of Independence](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2411/declaration-of-independence/). His father, [Henry Lee III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Henry_Lee_III/) (1756-1818), had won renown as a war hero during the [American Revolution](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Revolution/). Better known as 'Light-Horse Harry' Lee, he had commanded an elite legion of the Continental Army and had gone on to serve as governor of Virginia from 1791-94. But by the time of Robert's birth, Henry Lee had fallen on hard times. He had lost a fortune on bad land speculations, which left him deeply in debt and even led to a year-long stint in debtor's jail. His situation worsened in 1812, when 'Light-Horse Harry' was beaten within an inch of his life in a riot in Baltimore. He decided to go to the West Indies both to recuperate his health and escape his creditors. He would never return, dying in Georgia on 25 March 1818.

With the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of his father, Robert was left to care for his ailing mother, Anne Hill Carter Lee, often helping her run the household. He received a basic classical education at [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/) Academy, but, thanks to his father's financial mismanagement, prospects for postgraduate advancement were limited. He decided to join the army and, in June 1825, entered the prestigious US Military Academy at West Point as a cadet. He was a diligent student, particularly in the field of mathematics, and graduated second in his class in 1829, breveted as a second lieutenant in the US Army Corps of Engineers. While awaiting his first assignment, he returned to Virginia, only to find his mother was on her deathbed – he was by her side when she died on 16 July 1829. This was undoubtedly a bittersweet time in Lee's life, as that same summer, he began courting Mary Anna Custis (1807-1873), a great-granddaughter of First Lady Martha Washington. He had known her since childhood, and though Mary's father initially disapproved, the couple were married on 30 June 1831 and would ultimately have seven children.

### Antebellum Career

In August 1829, Lee received his first military assignment to Cockspur Island, Georgia, where he helped construct a fort to defend the Savannah River. Over the next decade and a half, he worked on similar engineering projects across the country, helping to strengthen Fort Monroe in Virginia and overseeing the construction of a harbor in St. Louis. The work was dull, offered little chance for advancement, and frustrated Lee because it often took him away from his family. He considered leaving the army almost every year and wrote to his wife that "I would advise no young man enter the army" (quoted in Encyclopedia Virginia). Nevertheless, the sociable, courteous Lee made a strong impression on everyone he met. Handsome and robust, with black hair and dark brown eyes, he struck many as the very image of a Southern gentleman, with one admirer referring to him as "the noblest-looking man I ever saw" (quoted in Freeman, 114).

[ ![Robert E. Lee, 1838](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/20756.jpg?v=1768831925-1754379330) Robert E. Lee, 1838 William Edward West (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20756/robert-e-lee-1838/ "Robert E. Lee, 1838")In May 1846, the monotony of life in the peacetime army was interrupted by the outbreak of war – rising tensions between the United States and Mexico over the US annexation of Texas, as well as provocations by the administration of President [James K. Polk](https://www.worldhistory.org/James_K._Polk/) (served 1845-1849), had led to bloodshed along the Rio Grande, kicking off the [Mexican-American War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mexican-American_War/) (1846-1848). Although Lee did not approve of the war itself, he looked forward to the opportunity to win advancement on the battlefield. In March 1847, he landed outside Veracruz, part of the 10,000-man army commanded by Gen. Winfield Scott (1786-1866). Now a captain, Lee took part in several vital reconnaissance missions, helping to map out routes for the army to Mexico [City](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/). On one such mission, he narrowly avoided capture, hiding behind a log as Mexican soldiers conversed with one another several feet away. He took part in the Battle of Cerro Gordo (18 April) and the Battle of Chapultepec (13 September), and emerged as Gen. Scott's favorite officer; years later, Scott would refer to him as "the very best soldier that I ever saw in the field" (quoted in Freeman, 76).

Lee's exploits won him the respect of his fellow soldiers and two brevet promotions, though he remained an obscure figure outside the army. After the war, in 1852, he was nominated as the next superintendent of West Point. Though he believed himself to be underqualified, Lee accepted, and spent the next few years improving the courses and enforcing discipline at the military academy. Among the cadets who graduated during his superintendency were future Confederate generals [John Bell Hood](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Bell_Hood/) (1831-1879) and [J. E. B. Stuart](https://www.worldhistory.org/J._E._B._Stuart/) (1833-1864), as well as Lee's oldest son, Custis Lee (1832-1913), who graduated first in his class. In 1855, Lee re-entered active service as a lieutenant colonel in the newly formed 2nd Cavalry Regiment, stationed in Texas. In 1857, upon the death of his father-in-[law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/), [George Washington](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_Washington/) Parke Custis, Lee took a two-year leave of absence to return to Virginia and help settle the will. His wife had inherited the great Custis family estate of Arlington as well as its landholdings and its hundreds of slaves, leaving Lee to turn his attention toward farming.

### Slavery & Secession

In his will, Custis had stipulated that all his slaves were to be freed within five years of his death. While Lee interpreted this to mean he could keep them enslaved for the entire five years, the slaves rejoiced, believing they were already free; when they learned that Lee had no intention of emancipating them, they began running away from Arlington in large numbers. Lee responded by hiring out many of the Arlington slaves, separating them from their families, and even filed petitions to keep some of them enslaved indefinitely. It was only after the courts ruled against him that Lee freed the Custis slaves. Lee's attitude toward the institution of slavery was a contradictory one – though he claimed to regard it as an evil institution, he believed in White supremacy and thought that some Black people benefited from being enslaved. In his own words:

> The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/), morally, socially, & physically. The painful discipline they are undergoing is necessary for the instruction of their race & I hope will prepare & lead them to better things. How long their subjugation may be necessary is known & ordered by a wise Merciful Providence.
> (quoted in Freeman, 92)

Lee was not the only one grappling with the issue of slavery in the 1850s. Indeed, the sectional dispute between the 'free states' of the North and the 'slave states' of the South was already eating away at the soul of the nation and threatening to devolve into civil war. On 17 October 1859, Lee was visited by his former student, Lt. J. E. B. Stuart, who brought news – the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, had been seized by insurrectionists who had taken hostages. Lee and Stuart immediately went to Harpers Ferry, and Lee took command of the militia and the US marines who had surrounded the arsenal. Lee sent Stuart to negotiate with the insurrectionists, but once these talks broke down, he ordered the marines to storm the arsenal. Within three minutes, it was all over. The leader of the raiders, [John Brown](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Brown/) (1800-1859), was captured and later executed; a radical abolitionist, Brown had intended to incite a slave revolt. The news unnerved many in the South, especially as the US presidential election of 1860 loomed.

[ ![Robert E. Lee, circa 1851](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/20768.jpg?v=1753996248-1754380753) Robert E. Lee, circa 1851 Mathew Brady (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20768/robert-e-lee-circa-1851/ "Robert E. Lee, circa 1851")Many Southerners feared that the victory of the new Republican Party would lead to the abolition of slavery. And so, after the Republican candidate [Abraham](https://www.worldhistory.org/Abraham,_the_Patriarch/) Lincoln (1809-1865) won the presidency, South Carolina voted to secede from the Union in December 1860, claiming that secession was the only way to preserve its 'way of life'. Over the next several months, six more states followed suit, forming the Confederate States of America and choosing Mississippi Senator [Jefferson Davis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jefferson_Davis/) (1808-1889) as their president. Though Lee opposed secession, he also believed that "if the Union can only be maintained by the sword and the bayonet…its existence will lose all interest with me" (quoted in Encyclopedia Virginia). For this reason, he refused an offer by his old mentor, Winfield Scott, to take command of the Union forces. Though Virginia had not yet seceded, he feared that it soon would, and refused to fight against his native state.

### Lee Takes Command

Shortly after the firing on Fort Sumter in April 1861, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to crush the Southern rebellion. This triggered four more states to secede from the Union – including Virginia. Lee resigned from the US Army and returned home, where he was immediately tasked with organizing the commonwealth's defenses. Invasion seemed imminent, especially after the Confederacy transferred its capital to Richmond, Virginia. In August 1861, Lee was appointed to the rank of full general and was sent to western Virginia. However, Lee's first campaign would end in disappointment; due to poor weather, sickness, and other unlucky circumstances, his army was unable to dislodge the Federal troops from the mountains of western Virginia. Returning from the campaign in disgrace, Lee was sent to oversee the construction of defenses in Georgia and the Carolinas. The following spring, he returned to Richmond as a military advisor to President Davis.

In March 1862, Union Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan (1826-1885) landed at Fort Monroe with his 120,000-man Army of the Potomac and began to slowly advance up the Virginia Peninsula. He was opposed by a Confederate army under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston (1807-1891), with the two forces clashing at the Battle of Seven Pines (31 May to 1 June). Johnston was wounded, and Davis decided to replace him with Lee. Upon taking command of the most important Southern army, which he began to call the Army of Northern Virginia, Lee failed to inspire much confidence. His decision to dig trenches outside Richmond frustrated the troops, who believed he was being too cautious and derisively referred to him as the 'King of Spades'. Lee's other nickname, 'Granny Lee', certainly matched his appearance; his black hair had gone gray, his aristocratic mustache replaced by a beard. Yet Lee would soon prove that he was up to the task. In a series of clashes known as the Seven Days' Battles (25 June to 1 July 1862), he aggressively confronted McClellan's army. Although only one of these battles was decisive (Gaines' Mill), Lee's relentless fighting took the Northerners off guard and forced McClellan away from Richmond. While Lee's aggressive approach won him the confidence of his soldiers, it came at a high price in terms of casualties – indeed, the Army of Northern Virginia would suffer more casualties throughout the war than any other Southern army.

[ ![Robert E. Lee, 1863](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/20766.png?v=1753995936-1754379672) Robert E. Lee, 1863 Unknown Photographer (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20766/robert-e-lee-1863/ "Robert E. Lee, 1863")After saving Richmond, Lee did not rest on his laurels but turned to face Maj. Gen. John Pope (1822-1892), who was invading Virginia with another large Union army. Outnumbered, Lee made the risky decision to divide his army into two corps. The right wing, under Maj. Gen. Thomas J. 'Stonewall' Jackson (1824-1863), pretended to retreat and lured Pope's bloated army to Manassas Junction. It was here, at the Battle of Second Manassas (28-30 August 1862), that the left wing of Lee's army, under Maj. Gen. James Longstreet (1821-1904), slammed into Pope's flank, helping to win another decisive victory for the South. Buoyed by this string of successes, Lee decided to invade Maryland, hoping that a victory on Northern soil might convince European nations like [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) to recognize Southern independence. His first invasion of the North culminated in the Battle of Antietam (17 September 1862), the bloodiest single-day battle in American history. Though the battle ended in a stalemate, Lee was forced to end his invasion, withdrawing his battered army back across the Potomac River.

### High Watermark of the Confederacy

Lee next established a defensive position on Marye's Heights outside Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Army of the Potomac assaulted this position, leading to the Battle of Fredericksburg (11-15 December 1862). As he watched a Confederate countercharge sweep the Yankees from the heights, Lee turned to Longstreet and sadly remarked, "It is well that war is so terrible – we should grow too fond of it" (quoted in Freeman, 278). The next spring, Lee won another decisive victory at the Battle of Chancellorsville (30 April to 6 May 1863). Once again, he managed to defeat a much larger army by dividing his own force and outflanking the enemy, leading some historians to consider the battle to be Lee's masterpiece. The cost of this success was high casualties, including the indispensable [Stonewall Jackson](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stonewall_Jackson/), who was mortally wounded.

Believing that the time was ripe for another invasion of the North, Lee again led the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac in June 1863. On 1 July, advance elements of his army clashed with Northern units at the small town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. After a hard day of fighting, the Union army pulled back to a strong defensive position on the heights to the south of the town. Despite the misgivings of some of his subordinates, like Longstreet, who deemed the Union position too strong, Lee was determined to renew the attack on 2 July; the Army of the Potomac had slipped through his fingers too many times, and he was not about to let it escape again. That day saw more bloody fighting at key points along the Union line that have become famous as Devil's Den, Little Round Top, and Culp's Hill. However, by nightfall, the Confederates had been unable to break through. On 3 July, Lee launched a three-pronged attack that included a massive assault on the Union center, involving 12,500 men under the command of Brig. Gen. George Pickett (1825-1875).

[ ![Battle of Gettysburg](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/19571.jpeg?v=1729241394-1729241426) Battle of Gettysburg Thule de Thulstrup / Adam Cuerden (CC BY) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19571/battle-of-gettysburg/ "Battle of Gettysburg")All three assaults failed, with Pickett's charge in particular resulting in several thousand casualties; the spot where the charge advanced the furthest has been immortalized as the 'high watermark of the Confederacy'. Lee was quick to realize his army had been broken. Telling his men that "it is all my fault," he led them on a disheartening, ten-day retreat into Virginia and would never again fight on Northern soil. The rest of the year was spent maneuvering around the Army of the Potomac, but fighting would not resume in earnest until May 1864, when Union General Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) launched his [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/). In only seven weeks, the armies clashed in several major engagements, including the [Battle of the Wilderness](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2843/battle-of-the-wilderness/) (5-7 May), the [Battle of Spotsylvania Court House](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2844/battle-of-spotsylvania-court-house/) (9-21 May), and the [Battle of Cold Harbor](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2849/battle-of-cold-harbor/) (31 May to 12 June). In these fights, Lee lost an estimated 35,000 men, including his trusty cavalry commander, Stuart.

### Appomattox & Final Years

In June 1864, Lee set up a defensive position around Petersburg, Virginia, as Grant's army dug in and began to lay siege. The [Siege of Petersburg](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2865/siege-of-petersburg/) (9 June 1864 to 25 March 1865) kept Lee and his army bottled up as the Confederacy crumbled around them. Atlanta, Georgia, fell to the Union on 2 September 1864, while Union General Philip H. Sheridan (1831-1888) ravaged the Shenandoah Valley. In February 1865, the Confederate government appointed Lee general-in-chief of all Confederate armies, but by then it was too late. In a last-ditch attempt to link his tired army up with another Confederate force, Lee abandoned Petersburg in early April, but was cornered by Grant outside Appomattox Court House. Having run low on men, supplies, and ammunition, there was little else Lee could do but surrender on 9 April 1865. The surrender of the Confederacy's most powerful army was the final nail in the coffin of Southern independence, and the war ended shortly thereafter.

[ ![Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/20757.jpg?v=1753973588-1754379521) Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Thomas Nast (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20757/lee-surrenders-to-grant-at-appomattox/ "Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox")After the war, Lee could not return to Arlington, which had been seized by the Union and turned into a national cemetery (a role it still fulfills today). But despite his defeat, he was recognized as a hero throughout the South. In August 1865, he accepted a position as president of Washington College in Lexington, Virginia, but refrained from speaking publicly about events as the country headed toward Reconstruction. As far as he was concerned, the South had gambled and lost, and now had to put past enmities behind it so that the nation could move forward. He suffered a stroke five years into his tenure and died on 12 October 1870 at the age of 63. He was mourned throughout the South and eventually became the idol of the pseudohistorical 'Lost Cause of the Confederacy' movement, which seeks to justify the Southern cause. While his place in history continues to be hotly debated today, there is no doubt that Robert E. Lee played a major role in one of the defining conflicts in US history.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Catton, Bruce. *A Stillness at Appomattox.* Anchor, 1953.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0385044518/)
- [Foote, Shelby. *The Civil War.* Random House, 2025.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B000R0LQQU/)
- [Freeman, Douglas Southall. *Lee.* Scribner, 1997.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0684829533/)
- [Glatthaar, Joseph. *General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse.* Free Press, 2008.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0684827875/)
- [Howe, Daniel Walker. *What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848.* Oxford University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195392434/)
- [McPherson, James M. *Battle Cry of Freedom.* Oxford University Press, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/019516895X/)
- [Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) - Encyclopedia Virginia](https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/lee-robert-e-1807-1870/ "Robert E. Lee (1807–1870) - Encyclopedia Virginia"), accessed 31 Jul 2025.
- [Robert E. Lee - Encyclopedia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee/Slavery-and-racial-attitudes#ref345636 "Robert E. Lee - Encyclopedia Britannica"), accessed 31 Jul 2025.

## About the Author

Harrison Mark is a historical researcher and writer for World History Encyclopedia. He holds degrees in history and political science from SUNY Oswego.
- [Facebook Profile](https://www.facebook.com/harrison.mark.5/)
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/in/harrison-mark-b56213197/)

## Timeline

- **19 Jan 1807 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) is born in Westmoreland County, Virginia.
- **Jun 1829 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) graduates from West Point, second in his class and joins the US Army Corps of Engineers as a second lieutenant.
- **30 Jun 1831 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) marries Mary Anna Custis.
- **9 Mar 1847 CE**: Captain [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) lands with Gen. Winfield Scott's army outside Veracruz in Mexico.
- **18 Apr 1847 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)'s reconnaissance missions contributes to US victory at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Cerro Gordo.
- **1852 CE - 1855 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) serves as superintendent of the US Military Academy at West Point.
- **18 Oct 1859 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) commands the US marines that put down [John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2772/john-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry/).
- **20 Apr 1861 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) resigns from the US Army as Virginia secedes from the Union.
- **1 Jun 1862 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) is put in command of the Army of Northern Virginia.
- **25 Jun 1862 CE - 1 Jul 1862 CE**: The Seven Days' Battles; Lee launches a counteroffensive against McClellan, driving him away from Richmond.
- **28 Aug 1862 CE - 30 Aug 1862 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Second Manassas (aka Second Battle of Bull Run) results in a Confederate victory.
- **17 Sep 1862 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Antietam; the culmination of [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)'s first invasion of the North, resulting in 22,000 casualties. After the battle, Lee withdraws back across the Potomac River.
- **30 Apr 1863 CE - 6 May 1863 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Chancellorsville; [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) wins another decisive victory.
- **1 Jul 1863 CE - 3 Jul 1863 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Gettysburg; [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)'s second invasion of the North ends in a Southern defeat.
- **4 May 1864 CE - 12 Jun 1864 CE**: The [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/) - Grant and Lee's armies struggle in some of the hardest fighting of the [American Civil War](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/).
- **9 Apr 1865 CE**: General [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) surrenders to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House.
- **12 Oct 1870 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) dies at the age of 63.

## Questions & Answers

### Who was Robert E. Lee?
Robert E. Lee was the most prominent Confederate general of the American Civil War, who led the Army of Northern Virginia during many pivotal battles like Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and the Wilderness.

### Why did Robert E. Lee fight for the South?
During the American Civil War, Robert E. Lee did not like secession but fought for the South in defense of his home state of Virginia. 

### What were Robert E. Lee's views on slavery?
Robert E. Lee claimed to regard slavery as an evil institution. Nevertheless, he owned slaves himself and regarded the White race as superior, even framing slavery as a 'positive good' for Black people. 

### Where did Robert E. Lee surrender?
Robert E. Lee surrendered on 9 April 1865 in Appomattox Court House in Virginia. 


## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, H. W. (2025, August 05). Robert E. Lee: General-in-Chief of the Southern Confederacy. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert\_E.\_Lee/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)
### Chicago
Mark, Harrison W.. "Robert E. Lee: General-in-Chief of the Southern Confederacy." *World History Encyclopedia*, August 05, 2025. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert\_E.\_Lee/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/).
### MLA
Mark, Harrison W.. "Robert E. Lee: General-in-Chief of the Southern Confederacy." *World History Encyclopedia*, 05 Aug 2025, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert\_E.\_Lee/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Harrison W. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/harrisonwmark/ "User Page: Harrison W. Mark"), published on 05 August 2025. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.