---
title: Ptolemaic Dynasty
author: Arienne King
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2024-07-12
---

# Ptolemaic Dynasty

_Authored by [Arienne King](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/ava.spartan.117/)_

The Ptolemaic dynasty was a Macedonian royal family that ruled [Ptolemaic Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Egypt/) from 323 to 30 BCE. It was founded by [Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_I/), a general and successor of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/). They built [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/), including the [Lighthouse of Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria/) and the Great [Library of Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Alexandria/). The dynasty ended when [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) conquered [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) in the reign of [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/).

The dynasty presented themselves as both [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) kings and [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) pharaohs. They never assimilated into [Egyptian culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Culture/), and their reign began a process of Greek immigration and acculturation in Egypt. The dynasty practiced incestuous marriage, with most rulers marrying close relatives.

The [Ptolemaic Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemaic_Empire/) expanded rapidly before civil wars, territorial losses, and natural disasters weakened it in the 2nd century BCE. The final generations of Ptolemies were reliant on the [Roman Republic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Republic/) for military support.

### Origins

The Ptolemaic dynasty was founded by [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) I (336-282 BCE), son of Macedonian nobles Lagos and Arsinoe. Ptolemy was one of [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)'s *somatophylakes*, trusted bodyguards and generals. The dynasty later encouraged a myth that Ptolemy was really the illegitimate son of [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) (r. 359-336 BCE), making him Alexander the Great's half-brother.

Ptolemy was present during Alexander's [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of Egypt (332 BCE), which was under the oppressive rule of the [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/). Alexander was welcomed by the Egyptian people and proclaimed [pharaoh](https://www.worldhistory.org/pharaoh/) in [Memphis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Memphis_(Ancient_Egypt)/). He made offerings to the Egyptian gods, demonstrating his desire to uphold Egyptian tradition, a policy that the Ptolemies would imitate. He also founded Alexandria, a classical Greek [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) on the coast of Egypt.

> \[Alexander\] reached Egypt late in the year, remaining there until spring, \[and\] visited the oracle of [Ammon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ammon/). But perhaps more significant for the future was Alexander's assumption of the religious titles and honors of the Egyptian king, especially upholding the kingship's linkage to the [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) Ptah, which ensured the lasting support of his priesthood, a significant factor that continued into the time of [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/).
> (Chauveau, chapter 2)

The [death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/) in [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) in 323 BCE created a dispute over who would inherit his [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). His half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus was eventually named king, and Alexander and [Roxanne](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roxanne/)'s son Alexander IV of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) became co-ruler after his birth. [Perdiccas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perdiccas/) took the role of regent, making him effectively its ruler. Alexander's generals, called the Diadochi (lit. "successors" in Greek), became satraps of its provinces. Ptolemy was made [satrap](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persian_Governor/) of Egypt, the wealthiest and most desirable province.

The Diadochi, including Ptolemy, [Seleucus I Nicator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucos_I/), [Lysimachus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lysimachus/), Crateros, and [Antipater](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Antipater/), resisted Perdiccas' attempts to control them. In 321 BCE, Ptolemy stole Alexander's mummified body from Perdiccas, who was attempting to bring it back to Macedon. Ptolemy buried Alexander in Memphis, later moving the body to Alexandria, to strengthen his connection to Alexander's legacy. This theft escalated the tension between Ptolemy and Perdiccas, who unsuccessfully attempted to invade Egypt and was killed by his own mutinying troops.

[ ![Ptolemy I Soter](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/590.jpg?v=1699018326) Ptolemy I Soter Marie-Lan Nguyen (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/590/ptolemy-i-soter/ "Ptolemy I Soter")Philip Arrhidaeus was murdered in 317 BCE, followed by Alexander IV in 310 BCE. The Diadochi finally proclaimed themselves autonomous kings in 306 BCE. This act formally established the Ptolemaic dynasty, which ruled for another 300 years. The [Wars of the Diadochi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Wars_of_the_Diadochi/) and their descendants fighting over territory resulted in the Syrian Wars (274-168 BCE) fought between the Ptolemies and the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/). Ptolemy I conquered [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/), [Cyrene](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyrene/), Coele-[Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/), and [Phoenicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/), forming the basis of the Ptolemaic Empire.

### Ptolemaic Kingship

The Ptolemies maintained power through a combination of violence and diplomacy. They formed close relationships with Egyptian elites, especially the priesthoods, to reinforce their political and religious legitimacy. They also settled Greek military colonies throughout the country to quiet rebellion. Each king was named Ptolemy, and queens were named Berenike, Arsinoe, or Cleopatra. Modern historians number them, but in antiquity, they were distinguished by nicknames.

[ ![Bust of Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4792.jpg?v=1717959183) Bust of Ptolemy I Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4792/bust-of-ptolemy-i/ "Bust of Ptolemy I")Ptolemaic royal ideology blended features of Macedonian and Egyptian kingship. Rulers used the Greek title *basileus* (king) or *basilissa* (queen), and the Egyptian title pharaoh. On coins circulated throughout their empire, the Ptolemies wear the Macedonian diadem, while in Egyptian statuary they wear Pharaonic regalia like the Egyptian double-crown. Other art depicting the Ptolemies combines Macedonian and Egyptian regalia.

> The most important feature in the history of Ptolemaic ideology is the fact that the king, like the people of his kingdom, has two faces: one that is pharaonic and another that is Greek-Macedonian.
> (Hölbl, 308)

The dynasty united their Greek and Egyptian subjects through a royal cult. Religious propaganda presented them as savior gods (*theoi soteroi*), who liberated those under their rule. The principle of euergetism, or royal charity, was central to this propaganda. Monarchs demonstrated charity by building temples, *gymnasia,* and libraries, and giving aid to the poor. They also established a cult of Alexander, which venerated him as the empire's patron god.

### Court [Culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/)

The Ptolemaic dynasty preserved Greek cultural habits instead of assimilating into Egyptian culture. The pages, courtiers, and tutors serving the royal family were typically Greeks. The dynasty only spoke Greek – except for Cleopatra VII – and so Egyptian aristocrats had to learn Greek to interact with their rulers.

Monarchs were coronated in Memphis but lived in Alexandria, one of the largest and most sophisticated [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of its era. The dynasty established themselves as patrons of [Hellenistic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenic_World/) culture and flaunted their wealth through festivals and monument construction. The [crown jewels](https://www.worldhistory.org/British_Crown_Jewels/) of these efforts were the Great Library and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of [the Seven Wonders](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Seven_Wonders/) of the Ancient World.

[ ![Ptolemy II Philadelphus Founds the Library of Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/8211.jpg?v=1771481465) Ptolemy II Philadelphus Founds the Library of Alexandria Vincenzo Camuccini (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8211/ptolemy-ii-philadelphus-founds-the-library-of-alex/ "Ptolemy II Philadelphus Founds the Library of Alexandria")Ptolemaic royal [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) were unusually politically powerful for their era, and many ruled independently, like the famous Cleopatra VII. Like Macedonian and Egyptian kings, the Ptolemies had multiple wives and mistresses. Children born out of wedlock could be crowned, and the Ptolemies also often named one of their younger children heir, leading to civil wars.

### Sibling Marriage

The dynasty practiced incestuous marriage; monarchs married a sibling or other close relative to be their co-ruler. The exceptions were political unions, like when the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) princess Cleopatra I (r. 195-176 BCE) married Ptolemy V (r. 205-180 BCE). Ancient Greek and [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) sources claimed this was an Egyptian custom adopted by the Ptolemies. Modern historians generally reject this explanation because incestuous marriage was infrequent in pre-Ptolemaic Egyptian dynasties.

The first Ptolemaic sibling marriage was between [Ptolemy II Philadelphus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus/) ("Sibling-Loving") and [Arsinoe II Philadelphus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Arsinoe_II_Philadelphus/). This union formed the basis of the royal cult, elevating the king and queen to the status of sibling gods. This ideology built upon the precedent of Greek and Egyptian gods who married their siblings, like [Zeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/zeus/) and [Hera](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hera/) or [Isis](https://www.worldhistory.org/isis/) and [Osiris](https://www.worldhistory.org/osiris/). Their union produced no children, but [Ptolemy II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus/) already had heirs from a previous marriage. The practice was revived by Ptolemy IV and his descendants.

[ ![Ptolemy I with Berenice I & Ptolemy II with Arsinoe II](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/11738.jpg?v=1618828203) Ptolemy I with Berenice I & Ptolemy II with Arsinoe II British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11738/ptolemy-i-with-berenice-i--ptolemy-ii-with-arsinoe/ "Ptolemy I with Berenice I & Ptolemy II with Arsinoe II")Historians have presented multiple theories for why this tradition persisted. Symbolically, it demonstrated that they were above the normal rules applied to mere mortals, equating them with gods. On a practical level, this limited competition for the crown by marrying potential rivals, and prevented princesses from having to marry husbands of a lower status.

As a result of inbreeding, the Ptolemaic dynasty remained mostly ethnically Macedonian. It is not known if the Ptolemies suffered health problems from inbreeding; the obesity and alcoholism common to the family were probably lifestyle-related. However, this familial dynamic certainly contributed to violent dynastic disputes.

### Consolidation under Ptolemy II & Ptolemy III

The 3rd century BCE was a golden age for the Ptolemaic Empire, which spread into Nubia, [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), and the Red Sea under Ptolemy II and Ptolemy III Euergetes ("Benefactor"). The province of Coele-Syria, which produced timber for shipbuilding and [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/) for paying armies, was key to this military expansion. Ptolemy II's daughter Berenike Syra (r. 252-246 BCE) married the Seleucid king Antiochus III (r. 261-246 BCE), creating temporary peace between their dynasties. Their imperial power was celebrated in the Ptolemaia, a religious festival established by Ptolemy II.

Ptolemy II experienced a few military setbacks in his reign. The [city-state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polis/) of Cyrene seceded under his half-brother Magas, not to be regained until his son Ptolemy III (r. 246-222 BCE) married Magas' daughter [Berenike II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Berenice_II_Euergetis/). Ptolemy II's attempts to meddle in Greek and Macedonian politics bore mixed results. He led the League of Islanders in the [Cyclades](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyclades/) and supported the unsuccessful rebellion against Macedon in the Chremonidean [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) (267-261 BCE).

The empire reached its greatest extent under Ptolemy III whose best-known campaign was the Laodicean War. The war began when Antiochus II died, causing a dispute between Berenike Syra and Antiochus' former wife Laodice I, each of whom expected their own son to inherit the throne. Ptolemy III brought a small army to the Seleucid capital [Antioch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antiochia/) in 246 BCE to help his sister take the throne. He was welcomed by the city officials, who supported Berenike. Unbeknownst to anyone, Laodice had already murdered Berenike and her son. Upon learning of this, Ptolemy III used his forces to invade Seleucid Mesopotamia, capturing several strategic cities.

[ ![Map of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt c. 240 BCE](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15183.png?v=1777179314-1777179974) Map of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt c. 240 BCE Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15183/map-of-the-ptolemaic-kingdom-of-egypt-c-240-bce/ "Map of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt c. 240 BCE")### Syrian Wars & Rebellion

After Ptolemy III's [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) and the coronation of Ptolemy IV Philopator ("Father-Loving", r. c. 222-205 BCE), Antiochus III recaptured Seleucia-in-Pieria and invaded Egypt. His onslaught was stopped by Ptolemy IV at the decisive [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Raphia in 217 BCE. Ptolemy IV and his sister-wife Arsinoe III were later murdered in 205 BCE by a conspiracy involving the regent Sosibius, Ptolemy IV's mistress Agathocleia, and her brother Agathocles. The conspirators ruled as regents to the dead rulers' 5-year-old son Ptolemy V Epiphanes ("God Who Appears") but were lynched by a military coup in 203 BCE.

By this time, the Ptolemaic military was increasingly reliant on harsh taxation and conscription policies which exploited the Egyptian population. Upon Ptolemy IV's death, the self-proclaimed pharaohs Horwennefer (r. 205-197 BCE) and Ankhwennefer (r. 197-185 BCE) led a revolt against Greek rule. Meroitic Nubia supported the rebels to weaken the Ptolemies. Antiochus III and Philip V of Macedon allied to divide the Ptolemaic Empire amidst the turmoil. Forced to fight on multiple fronts, the [Ptolemaic army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Army/) lost its eastern territories and was crushed by the Seleucids at the Battle of Panium (200 BCE).

[ ![Ptolemy V Epiphanes Tetradrachm](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/19213.jpg?v=1720647486-1720682845) Ptolemy V Epiphanes Tetradrachm Reinhard Saczewski (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19213/ptolemy-v-epiphanes-tetradrachm/ "Ptolemy V Epiphanes Tetradrachm")Ptolemy V ended the conflict by marrying Antiochus III's daughter Cleopatra I Syra in 195 BCE. This allowed Ptolemy V to focus on defeating Ankhwennefer in 185 BCE and annexing part of Nubia. He established a stronger military presence in Upper Egypt and also made amends for the causes of rebellion by lowering taxes, abolishing naval conscription, and giving privileges to the priesthoods. Ptolemy V planned to retake territory in Syria after the death of Antiochus III, but his generals poisoned him in 180 BCE. Cleopatra I ruled afterward as regent to their infant son Ptolemy VI Philometor ("Mother-Loving").

Ancient authors like [Polybius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polybius/) considered the fragmentation of the Ptolemaic Empire to be a reflection of increasingly cruel, lazy, and immoral kings. Modern historians associate Ptolemaic losses with larger factors like social tensions within Egypt and the better political organization of the Seleucids in the 3rd century BCE. Historian J. G. Manning demonstrated a correlation between droughts caused by volcanic climate change and Egyptian revolts, indicating that environmental change might have weakened the Ptolemaic state. The later Ptolemies were unable to hold external territories but secured their control of Egypt through stronger ties with Egyptian elites.

### Civil Wars

After Cleopatra I's death in 176 BCE, the kingdom passed to the young siblings Ptolemy VI, his sister-wife Cleopatra II, and their younger brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes. They attempted to invade Syria, resulting in a swift counterinvasion by Antiochus IV who captured Memphis and was crowned pharaoh in 168 BCE. He would have taken Alexandria and ended the Ptolemaic dynasty had the Roman ambassador Gaius Popilius Laenas not intervened by threatening to declare war if Alexandria were attacked.

With Rome defending them from the Seleucids, Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII turned against each other. Ptolemy VIII defeated his older brother, who sought sanctuary in Rome. Ptolemy VIII was remembered by ancient accounts as a highly intelligent and hedonistic ruler whose brutality made him unpopular. Ptolemy VI soon returned from exile to oppose him. In 160 BCE, the [Roman Senate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Senate/) suggested dividing the Ptolemaic Empire; Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II ruled Egypt and Cyprus, while Ptolemy VIII ruled Cyrene. Ptolemy VIII later made a will bequeathing his kingdom to the Roman Republic on his death, in exchange for Roman protection.

[ ![Engraved Ring Depicting Ptolemy VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/19200.jpg?v=1720417196-1720594280) Engraved Ring Depicting Ptolemy VI Marie-Lan Nguyen (CC BY) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19200/engraved-ring-depicting-ptolemy-vi/ "Engraved Ring Depicting Ptolemy VI")Egypt experienced relative stability and prosperity under Ptolemy VI. In 145 BCE, he invaded the Seleucid Empire to help his son-in-[law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) Alexander Balas fight Demetrius II. After being betrayed by Balas, Ptolemy VI switched sides and captured Antioch. Ptolemy VI was offered the Seleucid crown but declined to avoid alienating Rome. Demetrius II was crowned in his stead. Ptolemaic forces were successful in a final battle against Balas, but Ptolemy VI died after falling from his horse.

Ptolemy VIII returned to Alexandria after his brother's death and married Cleopatra II. They had several children, including Ptolemy Memphites who was born during Ptolemy VIII's coronation in 143 BCE. Ptolemy VIII quickly began eliminating all who opposed his reign. A respected scholar in his own right, he purged the Library of Alexandria of scholars who criticized him. In 141 BCE, Ptolemy VIII married his niece and stepdaughter Cleopatra III, the daughter of Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II.

The rivalry between Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III started another civil war. Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III fled to Cyprus, where he killed his son Ptolemy Memphites to prevent the boy from becoming a rival. Meanwhile, prolonged civil war and droughts caused anarchy and deprivation in Egypt. Peace was eventually reached between the three monarchs in 124 BCE, and conditions in Egypt slowly normalized. A poorly attested king, called Ptolemy VII by modern historians, is mentioned in ancient sources. He was likely either Ptolemy Memphites or a son of Ptolemy VI and was named king posthumously to make amends for his murder.

### Roman Domination

Ptolemy VIII died in 116 BCE, leaving behind numerous heirs and a kingdom reliant on Roman support. His illegitimate son Ptolemy Apion became king of Cyrene, which was bequeathed to Rome upon Apion's death. Cleopatra II's son Ptolemy IX Soter II took Egypt and Cyprus, defeating Cleopatra III's son Ptolemy X Alexander, who made a will bequeathing his kingdom to Rome. He soon died trying to retake the kingdom with a mercenary army, leaving Ptolemy IX's reign uncontested.

After Ptolemy IX died of natural causes, the Roman Senate chose not to annex Egypt, instead giving it to Ptolemy XI Alexander II, Ptolemy X's illegitimate son. Ptolemy XI had spent some of his early years in Rome, being mentored by the Roman dictator [Sulla](https://www.worldhistory.org/sulla/). Sulla supported his return to Egypt, where he married his stepmother Cleopatra Berenike and became king. His reign was brief; he was lynched by a mob after it became known that he had killed his new wife.

[ ![Ptolemy XII Bust](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/579.jpg?v=1771847727) Ptolemy XII Bust Veselin (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/579/ptolemy-xii-bust/ "Ptolemy XII Bust")Three illegitimate children of Ptolemy IX were crowned as his successors. [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) Neos [Dionysos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Dionysos/) ("New [Dionysus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Dionysos/)") and his sister-wife Cleopatra VI ruled Egypt, while their brother Ptolemy ruled Cyprus. In 58 BCE, the Roman Republic violently annexed Cyprus for its grain. Ptolemy XII's lack of response to this act of aggression made him unpopular, and he was usurped by Cleopatra VI and their daughter [Berenike IV](https://www.worldhistory.org/Berenike_IV/). He borrowed enormous amounts of money from Roman creditors so that he could pay for an army to retake Egypt. He was restored to his throne by the Roman governor of Syria Aulus Gabinius in 55 BCE, afterward relying on Roman mercenaries to stay in power.

### Resurgence & Fall under Cleopatra VII

Ptolemy XII was succeeded by Cleopatra VII Philopator and [Ptolemy XIII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/). She is the most famous member of the dynasty, described in ancient accounts as charismatic, ruthless, and intelligent. According to [Plutarch](https://www.worldhistory.org/plutarch/), she was the only member of the dynasty to learn the Egyptian language. Her ally and lover [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/), dictator of Rome, helped her to defeat Ptolemy XIII in the Alexandrian War. Before the [assassination of Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/803/the-assassination-of-julius-caesar/) on the Ides of March, they had allegedly had a son named [Caesarion](https://www.worldhistory.org/caesarion/).

Later, her relationship with the Roman triumvir [Mark Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) united Rome's eastern provinces and the [Ptolemaic Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Egypt/), effectively giving the pair full control of the eastern [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/). In 34 BCE, [Antony](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mark_Antony/) ceded vast swathes of Roman territory to Cleopatra and their children, restoring the Ptolemaic Empire to its greatest extent since the 3rd century BCE. This made Antony appear disloyal to Rome and worsened tensions between him and his former brother-in-law [Octavian](https://www.worldhistory.org/augustus/).

[ ![Cleopatra VII (Artistic Facial Reconstruction)](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17227.png?v=1771466653-1679905790) Cleopatra VII (Artistic Facial Reconstruction) Arienne King (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17227/cleopatra-vii-artistic-facial-reconstruction/ "Cleopatra VII (Artistic Facial Reconstruction)")In 32 BCE, the Roman Senate declared war on Antony and Cleopatra at Octavian's instigation. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide after their defeat at the [Battle of Actium](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Actium/) in 30 BCE. Octavian annexed Egypt, executing Cleopatra's heir Caesarion, and taking her other children hostage.

### Legacy

The Ptolemaic dynasty was the longest-lasting successor to Alexander's empire. Ancient historians remembered them for their greed and brutality, but Egypt flourished under them. Royal sponsorship of [Greek culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Greek_Culture/) and immigration began a period of Hellenization that reshaped Egyptian society. Alexandria was the center of the [Hellenistic world](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenistic_Period/), fostering a culture of scientific inquiry that produced breakthroughs in engineering, natural [science](https://www.worldhistory.org/science/), and [medicine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/medicine/). Increased [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) also exported Egyptian culture throughout the Mediterranean.

While Cleopatra's death is considered the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty, her daughter [Cleopatra Selene II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_Selene_II/) and grandson [Ptolemy of Mauretania](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_of_Mauretania/) remained prominent in the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/). Some historians have suggested that the descendants of the dynasty might have married into the royal family of Emesa, making them ancestors of the Roman empress [Julia Domna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julia_Domna/) and the [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Caracalla](https://www.worldhistory.org/Caracalla/).

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Bingen, Jean & Midgley, Stuart & Bagnall, Roger S. & Bagnall, Roger S. *Hellenistic Egypt.* University of California Press, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520251423/)
- [Chauveau, Michel & Lorton, David. *Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra.* Cornell University Press, 2000.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0801485762/)
- Christelle Fischer-Bovet. "A challenge to the concept of decline for understanding Hellenistic Egypt. From Polybius to the twenty-first century." *Topoi. Orient-Occident*, 20-1, 2015, pp. 209-237.
- [Collins, John J & Manning, J G. *Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East.* Brill Academic Pub, 2016.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/9004330178/)
- [Günther Hölbl & Tina Saavedra. *A History of the Ptolemaic Empire.* Routledge, 2000.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0415234891/)
- [Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd. *The Cleopatras.* Basic Books, 2024.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1541602927/)
- [Manning, J. G. *The Last Pharaohs.* Princeton University Press, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0691156387/)
- [Ogden, Daniel. *Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death.* The Classical Press of Wales, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1905125402/)
- Sheila L. Ager. "Familiarity breeds: incest and the Ptolemaic dynasty ." *The Journal of Hellenic Studies*, Volume 125, November 2005, pp. 1-34.
- [Whitehorne, John. *Cleopatras.* Routledge, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0415261325/)

## About the Author

Arienne King is a writer and historical consultant specializing in Ptolemaic Egypt and classical antiquity. She has written for publications such as BBC's HistoryExtra and Ancient History Magazine.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/in/arienne-king-430418180)

## Timeline

- **c. 366 BCE - 282 BCE**: Life of [Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_I/) Soter.
- **305 BCE - 285 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_I/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), who initiated the Great Library.
- **305 BCE - 30 BCE**: The [Ptolemaic Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **300 BCE**: [Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_I/) founds the Museum of [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/).
- **282 BCE - 246 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), development of Library at [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/).
- **247 BCE**: The [Lighthouse of Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria/) (Pharos) is completed.
- **246 BCE - 221 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) III in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **221 BCE - 205 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) IV in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **205 BCE - 180 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) V in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **180 BCE - 145 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) VI in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **c. 169 BCE**: Invasion of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) by Antiochus IV.
- **116 BCE - 80 CE**: Reign of [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) IX in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **80 BCE**: [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) becomes king of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **80 BCE - 51 BCE**: Reign of [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **79 BCE**: [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) marries [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/) V Tryphaena.
- **c. 69 BCE - 12 Aug 30 BCE**: Life of [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/) of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **c. 62 BCE - 47 BCE**: Life of [Ptolemy XIII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/) Theos Philopater.
- **59 BCE**: [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) is formally named an ally of the [Roman Republic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Republic/).
- **58 BCE**: [Berenike IV](https://www.worldhistory.org/Berenike_IV/) usurps the throne of [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/).
- **51 BCE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/)'s father, [Ptolemy XII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XII/) Auletes.
- **51 BCE**: [Cleopatra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/cleopatra/) accepts her brother [Ptolemy XIII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/) as co-ruler.
- **49 BCE**: Sole rule of [Ptolemy XIII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/), recognized by both Gaius [Julius Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Julius_Caesar/), the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) dictator, and his opponent, [Pompey the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/pompey/).
- **47 BCE**: [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/) is sole ruler of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/); she presents herself as the goddess [Isis](https://www.worldhistory.org/isis/).
- **Jan 47 BCE**: [Ptolemy XIII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/) drowns in the [Nile](https://www.worldhistory.org/nile/) fleeing [Caesar](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/caesar/).
- **40 BCE - c. 5 BCE**: Life of [Cleopatra Selene II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_Selene_II/).
- **c. 10 BCE**: [Ptolemy of Mauretania](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_of_Mauretania/) is born to [Juba II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Juba_II/) and [Cleopatra Selene II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_Selene_II/).

## Questions & Answers

### What was the Ptolemaic dynasty known for?
The Ptolemaic dynasty is known as the longest-lasting successor to Alexander's empire. The dynasty reshaped Egyptian culture and society, began a period of Hellenization, and made Alexandria the center of the Hellenistic world,

### Was Cleopatra from the Ptolemaic dynasty?
Yes, Cleopatra VII was the most famous member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Her reign marks the end of the dynasty.

### Why did Ptolemaic Egypt fall?
Ancient authors attributed the fragmentation of the Ptolemaic Empire to the incompetence of Ptolemaic kings. Modern historians acknowledge larger factors like social tensions, civil wars, and external threats. Ptolemaic Egypt became increasingly reliant on Roman support, leading to its annexation in 30 BCE. 

### Why did the Ptolemaic dynasty inbreed?
Symbolically, the practice of sibling marriage demonstrated that they were above the normal rules applied to mere mortals, equating them with gods. It also limited competition for the crown by marrying potential rivals.


## External Links

- [History vs. Cleopatra - Alex Gendler](https://ed.ted.com/lessons/history-vs-cleopatra-alex-gendler)
- [Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ptol/hd_ptol.htm)
- [List of Rulers of the Ancient Greek World | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gkru/hd_gkru.htm)
- [House of Ptolemy](http://www.houseofptolemy.org/)

## Cite This Work

### APA
King, A. (2024, July 12). Ptolemaic Dynasty. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic\_Dynasty/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/)
### Chicago
King, Arienne. "Ptolemaic Dynasty." *World History Encyclopedia*, July 12, 2024. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic\_Dynasty/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/).
### MLA
King, Arienne. "Ptolemaic Dynasty." *World History Encyclopedia*, 12 Jul 2024, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic\_Dynasty/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Arienne King](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/ava.spartan.117/ "User Page: Arienne King"), published on 12 July 2024. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.