--- title: Portuguese Empire author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 1970-01-01 --- # Portuguese Empire _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ The Portuguese [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) was established from the 15th century and eventually stretched from the Americas to [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/). Very often a string of coastal trading centres with defensive fortifications, there were larger territorial colonies like Brazil, Angola, and Mozambique. White Europeans dominated [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/), politics, and society, but there was also a significant mixing of races, and in many places, people of mixed ancestry rose to positions of wealth and power in the colonies. The Portuguese began their empire as a search for access to the [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) of West [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) and then the eastern spice trade. In addition, it was hoped that there might well be Christian states in Asia that could become useful allies in [Christianity](https://www.worldhistory.org/christianity/)’s ongoing battles with the [Islamic caliphates](https://www.worldhistory.org/Islamic_Caliphates/). New lands for [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/), riches and glory for colonial adventurers, and the ambitions of missionary work were other motivations in the building of an empire. [Carrack](https://www.worldhistory.org/Carrack/) ships created a maritime network that connected Lisbon with all of its colonies in the west and the *[Estado da India](https://www.worldhistory.org/Estado_da_India/)* (‘State of [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/)’) in the east, as the empire was known east of the Cape of Good Hope. Goods like gold, ivory, [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/), [Ming porcelain](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ming_Porcelain/), and spices were carried and traded around the world. Another major trade was in slaves, taken from West and southern Africa and used as labour on plantations in the North Atlantic islands and the Americas. ### The Key Colonies The most important colonies in the Portuguese Empire were: - Madeira (founded 1420) - Azores (1439) - Cape Verde (1462) - São Tomé and Principe (1486) - [Portuguese Cochin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Cochin/) (1503) - Portuguese Mozambique (1506) - [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) (1510) - [Portuguese Malacca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Malacca/) (1511) - Portuguese Hormuz (1515) - Portuguese Colombo (1518) - [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/) (1532) - [Portuguese Macao](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Macao/) (c. 1557) - [Portuguese Nagasaki](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Nagasaki/) (c. 1571) - [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/) (1571) ### The North Atlantic Islands The Portuguese were intrepid mariners and so it is entirely appropriate that their first colonies should be relatively remote islands. Searching for new resources and land which might solve Portugal’s deficit in wheat requirements, mariners sailed towards the unknown mid-Atlantic Ocean. The Portuguese navigators were able to mount these expeditions thanks to such rich and powerful backers as [Prince Henry the Navigator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator/) (aka Infante Dom Henrique, 1394-1460). Another immeasurable advantage was innovative ship design and the use of the lateen triangular sail. [ ![Map of the Portuguese Colonial Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14123.png?v=1761058266-1754032244) Map of the Portuguese Colonial Empire Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14123/map-of-the-portuguese-colonial-empire/ "Map of the Portuguese Colonial Empire")The first group of islands to be colonised was the volcanic and uninhabited Madeira archipelago. With rich volcanic soil, mild climate, and sufficient rainfall, the islands were used to grow wheat, vines, and sugar cane. In many ways, the [Portuguese colonization of Madeira](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1756/the-portuguese-colonization-of-madeira/) would set the template that all other colonies copied. The Portuguese Crown partitioned the islands and gave out ‘captaincies’ (*donatarias*) as part of a feudal system designed to encourage nobles to fund agricultural and trade development. The Crown retained overall ownership but each captain (*donatario*) was given certain financial and judicial privileges, and they, in turn, gave out smaller parcels of their land (*semarias*) for development by their followers who had to clear and begin cultivation within a certain number of years. These captaincies became hereditary offices in many cases. Settlers were attracted by the hope of a better life, but there were, as there would be in all future colonies, other, less desirable immigrants. These were the undesirables (*degregados*), people unwanted by the authorities in Portugal who were forcibly transported to colonies such as convicts, beggars, reformed prostitutes, orphans, Jews, and religious dissidents. Another way in which Madeira became a colonial model was sugar cane plantations, created from 1455. The success of this crop and its large labour requirement led to slaves being imported from West Africa to work them. The slave-worked plantation system became an important part of the [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/) in the New World that led to the terrible traffic in humanity that was the Atlantic slave trade. After Madeira, and following the same pattern, there followed the [Portuguese colonization of the Azores](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1758/the-portuguese-colonization-of-the-azores/) and the Cape Verde group. These colonies all became invaluable ports of call for ships sailing from India and the Americas. The Portuguese were not without rivals for these colonies. Portugal and Spain squabbled over possession of the Canary Islands, but the 1479-80 Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo and the 1494 [Treaty of Tordesillas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Tordesillas/) set out two spheres of influence, audaciously, spheres which encompassed the globe. The vagueness of these agreements caused trouble later such as Portugal’s right to future discoveries in Africa and Spain’s to islands beyond the Canaries, interests which were eventually identified as the Caribbean and even the Americas. [ ![Ribeira Grande, Santiago, Cape Verde](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14108.png?v=1698293583) Ribeira Grande, Santiago, Cape Verde Caspar Schmalkalden (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14108/ribeira-grande-santiago-cape-verde/ "Ribeira Grande, Santiago, Cape Verde")The North Atlantic islands permitted the Portuguese Crown to gain direct access to the gold of West Africa, avoiding the Islamic states in North Africa. A significant obstacle had been Cape Bojador which seemed to block sailing ships from going south and then returning home to Europe. The Atlantic islands and setting a bold course out away from the African coastline to best use winds, currents, and high-pressure areas provided the solution. Portuguese mariners could now sail south with confidence, and the ultimate result was the opening up of Asia to European ships. ### West Africa & Slavery The Portuguese, keen to access the West African gold and salt trade, set up several fortified trading settlements along the southern coast (modern [Ghana](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ghana/)) such as at Elmina in 1482. However, tropical diseases, a lack of manpower, and a reluctance by local rulers to allow male slaves to be exported meant that, at least initially, the profits were limited here. African chiefs were keen to trade for firearms, but these the Portuguese would not release. A more successful strategy focussed on the uninhabited islands of São Tomé and Principe, located off the southern coast of West Africa, which were colonised from 1486. The two islands became heavily involved in the slave trade, and, as in the North Atlantic, the captaincy model for development was used. Settlers on the islands were permitted to trade with communities in West Africa, and they proved more successful than the attempts made a few decades before. Portuguese trade settlements were established on the continent as far south as Luanda (in modern Angola) to take advantage of the well-organised African trade that saw goods travel from the interior along the major rivers (e.g. Gambia and Senegal) to the coast. Goods acquired included gold, ivory, [pepper](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pepper/), beeswax, gum, and dyewoods. Slaves (men and [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/)) were acquired from the [Kingdom of Kongo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kongo/) and [Kingdom of Benin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Benin/), the rulers of which were eager for European trade goods like cotton cloth, mirrors, knives, and glass beads. The islands acted as a gathering point for slaves and as a place to take onboard provisions for the ships which would carry the human cargo. One in five slaves died on these ships, but as many as one in two slaves died between initial capture and arrival at their final destination. The Atlantic slave trade ended in the mid-19th century, but even after that, slaves continued to be imported to São Tomé and Principe until prohibition in 1908. Slaves were then replaced by African labourers who had to be repatriated after a certain number of years, but their living conditions were little different from those their slave predecessors had suffered. [ ![Colonial Sugar Cane Manufacturing](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14118.jpg?v=1764493332) Colonial Sugar Cane Manufacturing Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14118/colonial-sugar-cane-manufacturing/ "Colonial Sugar Cane Manufacturing")There was little attempt at territorial [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) in West Africa as trade was thriving and the Europeans did not possess the military resources for such a policy. Some settlements were fortified, but this was usually done with permission from the local African tribal chief. Europeans and resettled Africans had intermarried on islands such as the Cape Verde group, creating an Afro-Portuguese [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/), which had a strong African religious and artistic influence. It was very often these free mixed-race Cape Verdeans (mulattoes) who settled in the trading posts on the coast of Africa. There were moves to cut out African chiefs and directly acquire slaves from the interior, but this policy soured relations with Kongo. The situation further deteriorated following a reaction against Christian missionaries as traditional cultural activities and tribal loyalties broke down. The Europeans were obliged to move further down the coast to the Ndongo region, where their interference led to a series of wars in a region which would soon become Portuguese Angola. ### East Africa When in 1498 the explorer [Vasco da Gama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vasco_da_Gama/) (c. 1469-1524) sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and into the Indian Ocean, suddenly the Portuguese gained access to a whole new trade network involving Africans, Indians, and Arabs. This had been going on for centuries, but when the Portuguese arrived commerce became violent. Using superior ships and cannons, the Portuguese blasted rival ships out of the water, crews were arrested or killed and their cargoes confiscated. The fact that most traders were Muslim was an added motivation for the Europeans who were still beset with a crusader mentality. Portuguese attacks on the independent trading [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of the [Swahili Coast](https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/) and on the inland Kingdom of [Mutapa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/) in the south (Zimbabwe/Zambia) did not bring any tangible benefits as traders simply moved to the north or avoided them. When the Portuguese had taken over and fortified the likes of Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Sofala, and [Kilwa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kilwa/), they found they had already lost the trading partners of these [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/)-states. Then the Omani Arabs of the Persian Gulf arrived. Keen to keep hold of their Red Sea trade routes and re-establish the age-old trade networks, the Omani moved in on the Swahili Coast and captured many cities, including Portuguese Mombasa in 1698. The lack of success in East Africa eventually drove the Portuguese south to Mozambique, but they were already wholly distracted by the potential of a newly discovered area of the world: India. [ ![Traditional Dhow Sailing Vessel](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/10328.jpg?v=1729619045) Traditional Dhow Sailing Vessel Alessandro Capurso (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10328/traditional-dhow-sailing-vessel/ "Traditional Dhow Sailing Vessel")### India & Spices One of Vasco da Gama’s prime objectives was to find a maritime route to Asia so that Portugal could gain direct access to the lucrative spice trade. Spices like pepper, ginger, cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon fetched high prices in markets from [England](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/england/) to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/). When he reached India’s Malabar Coast, the mariner did indeed find a wealth of trade going on. The city of Calicut (Kozhikode) proved unfriendly, but more Portuguese expeditions followed, and Calicut’s great rival Cochin (Kochi) looked more promising. A deal was struck with the local ruler, a fortress built in 1503, and the Portuguese settled in to do some big business. Unfortunately, they had a major problem: very few people were interested in any European goods. Consequently, they adopted the same strategy as they had on the Swahili Coast. Superior ships and cannons were used to take over the Indian Ocean trade network by force and establish a monopoly on the spice trade. Other coastal cities were taken over or established, notably Goa which replaced Cochin as the capital of the *Estado da India* in 1530. It was at Goa that the Portuguese Viceroy of India resided, he was the top of a [pyramid](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyramid/) of power that was created with the primary goal of controlling commerce. The viceroy was the civil and military governor of [Portuguese India](https://www.worldhistory.org/Estado_da_India/) and accountable only to the king of Portugal. In Lisbon, the *conselho ultramarino* advised the monarch on the affairs of the overseas colonies, while the *Casa da India* was the crown agency that supervised all communications and trade with Asia. In Goa and most other colonies, there was a *câmara*, a council which decided on local issues like taxes. Religious affairs were led by an archbishop or bishop, and churches, monasteries, convents, and hospitals were established by all the major religious orders but particularly the Jesuit Society. Branches of the Misericórdia brotherhood offered essential social welfare services to the poor. Legal matters were the responsibility of a High Court in Goa and local courts in each colony. A captain led the local military force, which usually resided in a fort, and a factor was responsible for royal trade and extracting the lucrative customs duties from other types of trade. This was the colonial model applied in most colonies. [ ![Cathedral of Santa Caterina, Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14226.png?v=1740590647) Cathedral of Santa Caterina, Goa Ondřej Žváček (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14226/cathedral-of-santa-caterina-goa/ "Cathedral of Santa Caterina, Goa")The Portuguese made a serious attempt at establishing a monopoly on the spice trade both between Asia and Europe and within Asia itself. The seas were no longer free. Traders without a license were arrested or executed and their goods confiscated. Certain ports were restricted, ships had to carry a Portuguese-issued passport (*cartaz*) and were often obliged to travel in Portuguese-protected convoys (*cafilas*). Customs duties were charged at ports, and these accounted for some 60% of the entire Portuguese revenue in the East. Nevertheless, many traders simply avoided the Europeans, some cities provided armed resistance, and the empire was simply too large and the manpower too little to police even a small part of the Asian-wide trade going on. These practical considerations did lead the Portuguese to relax their mania for trade monopolies as the empire matured. ### The Far East Another Portuguese strategy to control trade was to find the source of the precious spices. Many spices came from one small island group in Indonesia, the Spice Islands (the Maluku Islands or the Moluccas). Most of the spices from these islands were shipped to Malacca (Melaka) on the southwest coast of the Malay peninsula which controlled the Malay Straits leading from the Indian Ocean into the South China Sea. A Portuguese fleet led by Afonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515) took over Malacca in 1511, and sandalwood was acquired from their informal settlements on Timor from 1512. The Portuguese were keen to access the lucrative Chinese silk market and so Portuguese Macao was established on a peninsula of the Pearl River delta in southern China near Guangzhou (Canton). Similarly, the colony of Portuguese Nagasaki on the northwest coast of Japan’s Kyushu Island was founded c. 1571, giving access to that nation’s trade goods, foremost of which was [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/). Loaded with cargo for trade, Portuguese ships regularly sailed back and forth between Lisbon, Goa, Malacca, Macao, and Nagasaki, their most eastern colony. The Japanese government expelled all foreigners from the mainland in 1639 as part of a permanent policy of isolation and reaction against the spread of Christianity, and so Nagasaki had to be abandoned. [ ![Portuguese Traders by Japanese Painters](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14353.png?v=1740590644) Portuguese Traders by Japanese Painters Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14353/portuguese-traders-by-japanese-painters/ "Portuguese Traders by Japanese Painters")### Brazil Brazil was 'discovered' by the Portuguese in 1500, and it would become the most important of all their colonies. Brazil was rich in natural resources such as hardwoods, diamonds, and gold (from the Minas Gerais region). Captaincies were handed out, and São Vicente became the first Portuguese settlement in 1532. The first governor of Brazil was appointed in 1549, and Brazil was made an official Crown colony. The capital was established at Salvador da Bahia (replaced by Rio de Janeiro in 1763). A viceroy was appointed in 1572. The colonial plantation model with Amerindian and then African slave workers was introduced on a much larger scale than anywhere else, and Brazil became the world’s leading producer of sugar and then tobacco. In the first quarter of the 17th century alone, 150,000 African slaves were brought across the Atlantic to South America. The abolition of the slave trade by an independent Brazil in 1853 finally put an end to the transatlantic trade. Another casualty of [colonization](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/colonization/) besides slaves was the Tupi-Guarani Amerindians whose villages and culture were systematically destroyed, forcing those that remained to flee far into the interior of the rainforest. It took until 1755 for the Amerindians to be recognised as full and free subjects of the Portuguese Crown. In Brazil, colonial society was, as elsewhere, multilayered. The Europeans had the highest status, and social display was commonly achieved through extravagant clothing and the number of servants, slaves, and armed men they had. The Europeans divided themselves into three classes: Europeans, Europeans born in the colonies, and mixed-race Europeans (there were very few European women in any colony). On top of this were another four layers based on membership of the nobility, clergy, army, and all others (subdivided into the married and unmarried). There were also visiting Europeans such as maritime traders, and local merchants from the wider region. Then there was the local population, by far the majority in any colony, who might be divided by their own social ranks and by such factors as their conversion to Christianity. At the very bottom of colonial society were the slaves. [ ![Slave Women, Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14378.png?v=1757988065) Slave Women, Brazil Carlos Julião (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14378/slave-women-brazil/ "Slave Women, Brazil")### Southern Africa The Angola region was colonised by the Portuguese from 1571, and it became the first European territorial colony in Africa (as opposed to a mere [city-state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polis/) or coastal settlement). The Kingdom of Ndongo (formed c. 1500) collapsed, but not before it had been exploited as an ally against Kongo to the north. The Europeans had the advantage of gunpowder weapons and so Portugal’s first territorial conquest had begun. It was an ominous prelude to what was to take place all over Africa in the coming centuries. Once again, Portuguese settlers mixed with local peoples in the Angola region to create a mixed race known as Luso-Africans. The settlers and their descendants, based at Luanda and a few other coastal settlements, struggled to assert control over Angola’s interior where the [new Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/New_Kingdom/) of Matamba was on the rise. A century of fighting followed known as the Angolan Wars. The colony turned out to be a disappointment for Portugal. Much-talked-about silver mines in the interior proved to be only a legend, resources were limited, and hopes to spread Christianity proved overly ambitious. Some private settlers and traders prospered, and it was these who ensured the continuance of the colony’s main trade: slaves. By the late-16th century, nearly 10,000 slaves a year were being exported from Angola to be shipped directly from Luanda to Brazil and elsewhere in the Americas. Angolan communities, already reeling from smallpox and other diseases brought by the Europeans, were devastated by the trade. On the other side of southern Africa, the Portuguese had created another large territorial colony: Mozambique (adopting the name of Portuguese East Africa in the 19th century). The first Portuguese settlers arrived on Mozambique Island from 1506 when a captaincy was created. Mozambique was not as gold-rich as hoped, but there was ivory and slaves. Mozambique became a part of the *Estado da India* from 1571 (but left in 1752), and carrack ships traded directly with Goa as part of the route known as the *carreira da India*. In the interior, a system developed known as *prazo* where African chiefs gave land and trade and tribute rights to Portuguese and Afro-Portuguese, an appointment then formally recognised by the Portuguese Crown. In return, the appointee (a *muzungo*) had to ensure justice was carried out in his territory, supervise traditional rituals, and approve chiefs of smaller villages in their jurisdiction. To maintain their position, *muzungos* had a private army of retainers (*chicunda*) which could number several thousand Africans. By 1637, there were at least 80 *prazos,* and most acted independently of the weak Portuguese administration at the capital Maputo. [ ![Island of Mozambique](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/8906.jpg?v=1707756783) Island of Mozambique Stig Nygaard (CC BY) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8906/island-of-mozambique/ "Island of Mozambique")The Portuguese Crown then left the colony to be exploited by private companies like the Mozambique Company and the Niassa Company. The lack of a central administration and the success of the British in southern Africa also put paid to the dream of connecting their two African colonies of Angola with Mozambique. ### Decline, Decolonization & Legacy Besides an often ever-present threat from local rulers, the Portuguese faced fierce competition from other European maritime powers who soon began to eye enviously their empire. This was especially so given the lack of upkeep of Portuguese forts and the general isolation of individual coastal cities, which had no supporting local population to come to their aid. English and French privateers loved nothing more than picking off Portuguese trade ships as they sailed the High Seas. Another major threat came, ironically, in the guise of a Portuguese explorer, one [Ferdinand Magellan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ferdinand_Magellan/) (c. 1480-1521), who, in the service of Spain in 1519-22, sailed around the southern tip of South America and pioneered a maritime route across the Pacific Ocean and on to East Asia. The expedition eventually circumnavigated the globe, but it was access to the spice trade that was crucial. Other European countries followed Magellan’s wake, and suddenly the Portuguese no longer had any hope at all of obtaining a trade monopoly in the East. The most successful and widespread threat to Portuguese territories came from the Dutch who attacked Mozambique in the first decade of the 17th century, Macao in 1622 and 1626, and Angola in 1641. In the 1620s and 1630s, the Dutch attacked and occupied parts of northern Brazil. They captured Malacca in 1641, Colombo in 1656, and Cochin in 1663. [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) was another growing threat, and they helped the Arabs retake Hormuz in 1622. In the 18th century, the Portuguese in Brazil were obliged to give very favourable trade rights to the superior maritime powers of Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The British even occupied Goa from 1799 to 1815. Other threats were internal. In Brazil, the people wanted equal rights for all citizens, and they achieved independence in 1822. They declared Pedro I (r. 1822-1831) as their king and the first Emperor of Brazil. Pedro was the son of João VI of Portugal (r. 1816-1826), and the two countries maintained close ties thereafter. [ ![São Francisco Church, Cidade Velha](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14109.png?v=1736368812) São Francisco Church, Cidade Velha Nice Marinho (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14109/sao-francisco-church-cidade-velha/ "São Francisco Church, Cidade Velha")By the 20th century, many of the Portuguese colonies were lost to either rival powers or internal [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/). Of those which remained, Madeira and the Azores became autonomous regions of Portugal, and Goa became a part of India in 1962. The Portuguese government, then a military dictatorship under António de Oliveira Salazar (ruled 1932-1968), refused to see the futility of fighting African independence movements, and bloody wars followed in both Angola and Mozambique. The Cape Verde islands, São Tomé and Principe, East Timor, Angola, and Mozambique all gained independence from Portugal in 1975. Macao was returned to China in 1999. The Portuguese colonial empire brought many disasters on indigenous peoples: slavery, warfare, disruption of trade networks, an end to traditional cultural activities, deforestation, and diseases, to name just a few. Other consequences included the continued prevalence of the Portuguese language and Catholic [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) in many parts of the world today. The Portuguese were also directly responsible for spreading flora and fauna around the world, sometimes with disastrous effects on local ecosystems but also with notable successes as crops like manioc, maize, and sugar cane which became common in entirely new locations. Finally, the Portuguese had been the first to build a truly global empire across several continents, even if it had been a rather shaky and disjointed one. Their greatest legacy, perhaps then, is the unfortunate one that other European powers now realised the possibilities of imperialism and so set about exploiting peoples worldwide to an even greater degree when colonialism became a question of not merely control of trade but of territorial, resource, and population control. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Bergreen, Laurence. *Over the Edge of the World.* William Morrow Paperbacks, 2019.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0062890484/) - [Cliff, Nigel. *The Last Crusade.* Harper Perennial, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0061735132/) - [Dillon, Michael. *China.* I.B. Tauris, 2021.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0755601858/) - [Disney, A. R. *A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 1.* Cambridge University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521603978/) - [Disney, A. R. *A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, Vol. 2.* Cambridge University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521738229/) - [El Fasi, M. *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. III, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press, 1992.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520066987/) - [Henshall, Kenneth. *Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945 .* Scarecrow Press, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0810878712/) - [Huffman, James L. *Japan in World History .* Oxford University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195368096/) - [Ki-Zerbo, Joseph . *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press; Abridged edition (1998-05-10), 2021.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B017WQ7W28/) - [Mason, R. H. P. & Caiger, J. G. *A History of Japan.* Tuttle Publishing, 1997.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/080482097X/) - [Newitt, Malyn. *The Portuguese in West Africa, 1415–1670.* Cambridge University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521768942/) - [Ogot, B. A. *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. V, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press, 1999.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520067002/) - [Oliver, R. A. *Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa .* Cambridge University Press, 1981.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521230969/) - [Oliver, Roland. *The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3.* Cambridge University Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521209811/) - [Pearson. *New Cambridge History of India .* Cambridge UP, Paperback(2006), 2021.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B008CMA22E/) - [Russell-Wood, A. J.R. *The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808.* JHUP, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0801859557/) - [Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. *The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama.* Cambridge University Press, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521646294/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **1420 CE**: The Portuguese colonize the Madeira archipelago. - **1439 CE**: The Portuguese colonize the Azores archipelago. - **1462 CE**: The Portuguese colonize the Cape Verde archipelago. - **1486 CE**: The Portuguese colonize the islands of São Tomé and Principe. - **7 Jun 1494 CE**: Portugal and Spain sign the [Treaty of Tordesillas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Tordesillas/) which divides the world into two spheres of influence. - **8 Jul 1497 CE - Aug 1499 CE**: The Portuguese explorer [Vasco da Gama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vasco_da_Gama/) sails around the Cape of Good Hope and on to [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/) and back. - **24 Apr 1498 CE - 18 May 1498 CE**: [Vasco da Gama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vasco_da_Gama/) crosses the Indian Ocean for the first time by sailing from Malindi to Calicut, [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **1500 CE**: The Portuguese mariner Pedro Álvares Cabral lands in Brazil. - **1502 CE**: The Portuguese establish the first trading station (feitoria) in Brazil north of Rio de Janeiro. - **1502 CE - 1503 CE**: [Vasco da Gama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vasco_da_Gama/) sails a 15-ship fleet from Portugal to Calicut, [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **1503 CE**: The Portuguese colonize Cochin in western [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **1505 CE**: The Portuguese begin to attack [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) and build forts along the [Swahili Coast](https://www.worldhistory.org/Swahili_Coast/) in order to control [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/). - **1505 CE - 1961 CE**: The [Estado da India](https://www.worldhistory.org/Estado_da_India/) is in existence, that part of the [Portuguese Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/) from East [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) to [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/). - **1506 CE**: The Portuguese coloinze Mozambique Island. - **1510 CE**: Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/) for Portugal. - **1510 CE - 1961 CE**: Goa on the west coast of [india](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/) is a Portuguese colony. - **1511 CE**: Afonso de Albuquerque captures Malacca in Malaysia for Portugal. - **1511 CE - 1641 CE**: Malacca in Malaysia is a Portuguese colony. - **1515 CE**: Hormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf is colonized by the Portuguese. - **1518 CE**: The Portuguese establish a fort at Colombo, Sri Lanka. - **1519 CE**: The Portuguese establish a fort at Kollam in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **1519 CE - 1522 CE**: [Ferdinand Magellan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ferdinand_Magellan/)'s expedition circumnavigates the globe for the first time. - **1521 CE**: The Portuguese establish a fort at Chaul in [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **Apr 1524 CE**: [Vasco da Gama](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vasco_da_Gama/) sails om his third voyage from Portugal to [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/). - **1530 CE**: [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) replaces Cochin as the capital of the [Estado da India](https://www.worldhistory.org/Estado_da_India/). - **1532 CE**: The first Portuguese settlement in Brazil is founded at São Vicente. - **1533 CE**: A papal bull establishes the archdiocese of the [Estado da India](https://www.worldhistory.org/Estado_da_India/). - **1533 CE - 1539 CE**: The first sugar plantations are established in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/) at Pernambuco, Sâo Vicente and Rio. - **1543 CE**: Three Portuguese mariners accidentally land in [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/), the first Europeans to do so. - **1546 CE**: The Portuguese establish a formidable fortress on Mozambique Island. - **1549 CE**: Brazil is made a Crown colony of the [Portuguese empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/). - **1560 CE**: [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) has it first archbishop appointed. - **1567 CE**: The French colony of France Antarctique in Guanabara Bay, Brazil is taken over by the Portuguese. - **c. 1571 CE**: The Japanese daimyo Omura Sumitada grants the Portuguese control of Nagasaki. - **1571 CE**: Foundation of the colony of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1571 CE - 1639 CE**: The Portuguese control the port of Nagasaki in [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/). - **1572 CE**: The Portuguese Crown establishes a viceroy in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1575 CE**: The Crown appoints a governor of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1576 CE**: Luanda on the coast of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/) is founded. It will be the capital and a major hub of the Atlantic slave [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/). - **1596 CE**: The Dutch arrive in Southeast Asia and challenge the Portuguese and their [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/). - **1603 CE**: Dutch forces attack [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/). - **1604 CE**: A Council of State is established at [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/). - **1610 CE**: Dutch forces once again attack [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/). - **1616 CE**: The Dutch attack [Portuguese Malacca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Malacca/) for the first time. - **1621 CE**: The Portuguese, with help from the Jaga, force the king of Ndongo to flee his kingdom in [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1622 CE**: The Persians, with English assistance, take control of Hormuz from the Portuguese. - **1624 CE**: The Dutch capture Salvador in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1629 CE**: The Dutch attack [Portuguese Malacca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Malacca/) for a second time. - **1630 CE**: The Dutch capture Olinda and Recife in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1632 CE**: The Dutch capture Pernambuco in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **c. 1633 CE**: The Portuguese [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the southern African kingdom of [Mutapa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/). - **Dec 1637 CE - Apr 1638 CE**: The [Shimabara Rebellion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shimabara_Rebellion/) in [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/), which the shogunate blames on Christians, leading to an expulsion of all Europeans. - **1638 CE - 1644 CE**: Dutch forces attempt to blockade [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/). - **1640 CE - 1668 CE**: Spain is at [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) with Portugal. - **1641 CE**: The Dutch attack and take over [Portuguese Malacca](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Malacca/). - **1641 CE**: A Dutch force takes over Luanda, capital of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1648 CE**: A military froce from [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/) recaptures Luanda, the capital of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/), from Dutch control. - **1654 CE**: [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/) regains control of those parts of the colony taken over by the Dutch. - **1656 CE**: The Dutch attack and take over Portuguese Colombo. - **1656 CE - 1663 CE**: Dutch forces attempt to blockade [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) for a second time. The blockade ends with a peace treaty. - **1663 CE**: The Dutch attack and take over [Portuguese Cochin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Cochin/). - **1663 CE**: A peace treaty is agreed between Portugal and the Netherlands regarding [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1665 CE**: An alliance of Angolan tribes and the Portuguese defeat the [Kingdom of Kongo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kongo/) at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Mbwila. - **1670 CE**: A Portuguese force is defeated by the [Kingdom of Kongo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Kongo/) at Soyo. - **1676 CE**: The first bishop is appointed at Luanda, capital of [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1683 CE**: A peace treaty is agreed between the Portuguese and the Matamba kingdom in [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). This ends the Angolan Wars. - **1711 CE**: French forces briefly take over Rio de Janeiro in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1755 CE**: Amerindians in [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/) are recognised as full and free subjects of the Portuguese Crown. - **1763 CE**: Rio de Janeiro is made sole capital of [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1799 CE - 1815 CE**: [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) is occupied by the British during the Napoleonic Wars. - **1808 CE**: Fearing for its safety, the Portuguese monarchy relocates to [Portuguese Brazil](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Brazil/). - **1822 CE**: Brazil declares independence form Portugal. - **1853 CE**: Brazil porhibits the importation of slaves, ending the slave [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) from [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/). - **1902 CE - 1915 CE**: A series of rebellions within [Portuguese Angola](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/) are put down. - **1951 CE**: Angola becomes an Overseas Province of Portugal. - **1961 CE**: [Portuguese Goa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Goa/) is invaded by the Indian military. - **1975 CE**: Angola gains independence from Portugal. - **1999 CE**: [Portuguese Macao](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Macao/) is handed over to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/). ## Questions & Answers ### What countries were under the Portuguese Empire? The Portuguese empire controlled the Azores, Madeira, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Principe around the coast of Africa; Cochin, Goa, and Colombo on the Indian sub-continent; Macao and Nagasaki in East Asia; Mozambique and Angola in Africa; and Brazil. ### How were the Portuguese and Spanish empires different? The Portuguese and Spanish empires were different because the Spanish conquered large areas of land while the Portuguese preferred to control only major trading ports. ### Why did the Portuguese empire fall? The Portuguese empire fell because it was very difficult to control a large empire across the globe and there was a lot of competition from other, richer and more powerful European states like the Netherlands, England, and France who also wanted to create their empires. ## External Links - [The Portuguese in Africa, 1415–1600 | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/agex/hd_agex.htm) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2021, July 19). Portuguese Empire. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Portuguese Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, July 19, 2021. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Portuguese Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, 19 Jul 2021, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Empire/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 19 July 2021. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.