---
title: Near East: A Modern Term for an Ancient Land
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-03-25
---

# Near East: A Modern Term for an Ancient Land

_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_

The 'Near East' is a modern-age term for the region formerly known as the 'Middle East,' comprising [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/), [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/), [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), Iraq, Iran, [Israel](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Israel/), [Jordan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jordan/), Lebanon, [Palestine](https://www.worldhistory.org/palestine/), [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/), and part of [Turkey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/), corresponding to ancient [Urartu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Urartu_Civilization/), [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/), [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/), the [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/), and [Anatolia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/). The history of [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/) in the ancient Near East is usually given as circa 6500 BCE to the 7th century CE.

Although human habitation of the region dates to the [Stone Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stone_Age/) (circa 10,000 BCE) and permanent settlements began to appear during the [Neolithic Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neolithic/) around 7000 BCE, the region's history begins in the Chalcolithic period (the [Copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/) Age, circa 5900-3200 BCE), and, in Mesopotamia, in the Ubaid period (circa 6500-4000 BCE) specifically.

This corresponds roughly to developments in the [Predynastic Period in Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/Predynastic_Period_in_Egypt/) (circa 6000 to circa 3150 BCE) and other areas, but there were sophisticated permanent settlements and sacred sites existing much earlier, such as the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Jericho (circa 9000 BCE) in Palestine and [Göbekli Tepe](https://www.worldhistory.org/Göbekli_Tepe/) (circa 10,000 BCE) in Anatolia (modern Turkey).

The Near East is often defined as the region bordered by the [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/) Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea, and access to these waterways encouraged long-distance [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/), notably with the [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of the [Indus Valley Civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/) (circa 7000 to circa 600 BCE) as well as the various Near Eastern cities and ports.

The region is often referred to as including the Fertile Crescent and is known as the Cradle of Civilization, although civilization had also developed elsewhere, such as in ancient [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), the [Indus Valley](https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/), and the Americas.

Even so, the Near Eastern region of Mesopotamia, specifically [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/), is regarded as the oldest civilization on earth due to the established dating of inventions and developments which constitute civilization, including:

- [Animal husbandry](https://www.worldhistory.org/Animal_Husbandry/)
- Agricultural innovations
- [Urbanization](https://www.worldhistory.org/urbanization/)
- Astronomy and mathematics
- The concept of time
- Long-distance trade
- Religious rituals and sacred sites
- Medical practices
- Scientific thought
- Technological innovations

The history of the ancient Near East ends with the [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the region by the Muslim Arabs in the 7th century and the fall of the Persian [Sassanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) (224-651), which marks the beginning of a new phase in the region's history.

[ ![Ancient Mesopotamia from Cities to Empires](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16859.png?v=1770534075-1763965746) Ancient Mesopotamia from Cities to Empires Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16859/ancient-mesopotamia-from-cities-to-empires/ "Ancient Mesopotamia from Cities to Empires")### Early Mesopotamian & [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) Periods

The term 'Near East,' though widely used, is by no means universally accepted by modern-day scholarship, as some writers still consider 'Middle East' more accurate. Scholar Marc Van De Mieroop comments:

> The term "Near East" is not widely used today. It has survived in a scholarship rooted in the nineteenth century when it was used to identify the remains of the [Ottoman empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ottoman_Empire/) on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Today we say *Middle East* to designate this geographical area, but the two terms do not exactly overlap, and ancient historians and archaeologists of the Middle East continue to speak of the Near East.
> (1)

The region's long history and varied civilizations also present problems in creating a clear narrative of events that is all-inclusive, and so most scholars focus on Mesopotamia with brief mention of the other regions and political entities that interacted with it. Following this lead, the history of the Near East begins with the Ubaid period, during which the first temples (the [ziggurat](https://www.worldhistory.org/ziggurat/)) were built and permanent settlements grew into small villages.

During the [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) period (circa 4000-3100 BCE), these villages developed into urban centers engaged in [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/), manufacturing, and trade as the basis for their [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/). [Writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) was invented in Sumer as [cuneiform](https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/) [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) (circa 3600/3500 BCE), and the wheel followed soon after or about the same time (circa 3500 BCE), along with other technological and agricultural innovations.

During this same era in Egypt, writing was developed as hieroglyphic script by the Naqada [Culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) III, circa 3400-3200 BCE, and some Egyptian cities, such as [Xois](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xois/), were already regarded as ancient by that time. The [Early Dynastic Period in Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/Early_Dynastic_Period_In_Egypt/) (circa 3150 to circa 2613 BCE) established kingship when [Narmer](https://www.worldhistory.org/Narmer/) (also known as [Menes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Menes/)) united the region, and, by this time, trade with the cities of Mesopotamia had been ongoing for centuries.

### [Early Dynastic](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Early_Dynastic/) Period

During the [Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)/) (circa 2900 to circa 2350/2334 BCE), kingship was established, as society moved away from the concept of the ruler as priest-king (established during the Uruk period) to a division of responsibility between a king and a high priest. The king would now concern himself with military matters and civic duties, while the high priest would serve the god of the city and tend to matters concerning the [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) complex.

[ ![Ziggurat of Ur (Artist's Impression)](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/12890.png?v=1778345190) Ziggurat of Ur (Artist's Impression) Mohawk Games (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12890/ziggurat-of-ur-artists-impression/ "Ziggurat of Ur (Artist's Impression)")By this time, the monumental structure of the ziggurat had already been appearing in Mesopotamian cities for centuries, and scholars continue to debate whether these structures influenced the [pyramids](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyramid/) of Egypt that were raised during the period of the [Old Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Old_Kingdom/) (circa 2613-2181 BCE). While this is a possibility, as the civilizations were in close contact through trade, it seems the [pyramid](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyramid/) developed from the earlier Egyptian mastaba [tomb](https://www.worldhistory.org/tomb/) and had nothing to do with the ziggurat either in design or purpose. Egyptian pyramids were royal tombs; Mesopotamian ziggurats were religious sites topped by temples to a specific god. Egyptian pyramids were designed with interior rooms; Mesopotamian ziggurats were solid structures of mud brick with no interior chambers.

The semimythical [Sumerian King List](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerian_King_List/) (composed circa 2112 to circa 2004 BCE) gives the names and reigns of the Mesopotamian monarchs, claiming that kingship was established at the city of [Eridu](https://www.worldhistory.org/eridu/) (founded circa 5400 BCE) and passed to other cities from there. Just as there is no evidence of a connection between ziggurats and pyramids, there appears to be none between the concept of monarchy in Mesopotamia and that of Egypt. Mesopotamian administrative records and archaeological evidence also make clear that cities in the region differed from those elsewhere in that they were usually larger, walled, and were supported by often sprawling suburbs of farming communities.

### First [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) & [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) Revival

Each Mesopotamian [city-state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polis/) was its own political and military entity until the rise of [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (the Great, reign 2334-2279 BCE), who unified the region under the [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/). [Sargon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/sargon/) established the first multinational political entity in the world and held it through careful placement of trusted officials in important positions in various cities (such as his daughter, [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/), circa 2300 BCE, as high priestess of [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/)) and military strength. Sargon's reign united the Near East region from modern-day Iraq through Jordan, Syria, the Levant, and part of modern-day Turkey to Cyprus.

The empire reached its height under the reign of Sargon's grandson, [Naram-Sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/) (2254-2218 BCE), but, after his [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/), it declined and finally fell to the invading [Gutians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) circa 2154 BCE. The fall of [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) initiated the [Gutian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) Period in the region (circa 2141 to circa 2050 BCE), which is characterized by scribes of the time (and afterward) as a lawless time of chaos. This seems to have been something of an exaggeration, as noted by scholar [Paul](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Paul/) Kriwaczek, who cites climate change bringing drought and famine as the most likely cause of the fall of Akkad and the dark times that followed (129-130).

[ ![Akkadian Ruler](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/161.jpg?v=1774133071) Akkadian Ruler Sumerophile (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/161/akkadian-ruler/ "Akkadian Ruler")Whatever happened, trade in the Near East declined during the Gutian Period, as did construction of temples and other building projects, until the Sumerian King of Uruk, Utu-Hegal (reign circa 2119-circa 2112 BCE), rose in revolt. After Utu-Hegal's death, the [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) was continued by [Ur-Nammu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ur-Nammu/) (reign circa 2112-2094 BCE), who initiated the Ur III period (also known as the Sumerian Renaissance, circa 2112 to circa 2004 BCE), and hostilities were concluded with the victory of Ur-Nammu's son, [Shulgi of Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shulgi_of_Ur/) (reign 2094 to circa 2046 BCE). The Ur III period was a time of great cultural revival and significant building projects, such as the Great Ziggurat of Ur.

By this time, many of the most important inventions and innovations of the [Sumerians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) had been adopted by the other cultural entities of Mesopotamia and had spread through trade throughout the Near East. Scholar [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) [Noah](https://www.worldhistory.org/Noah/) Kramer, in his iconic work *History Begins at Sumer*, gives a list of 39 "firsts" appearing in ancient Sumer which influenced the development and culture of other Near Eastern civilizations:

1. The First Schools
2. The First Case of 'Apple Polishing'
3. The First Case of Juvenile Delinquency
4. The First 'War of Nerves'
5. The First Bicameral Congress
6. The First Historian
7. The First Case of Tax Reduction
8. The First '[Moses](https://www.worldhistory.org/Moses/)'
9. The First Legal Precedent
10. The First Pharmacopoeia
11. The First 'Farmer's Almanac'
12. The First Experiment in Shade-Tree Gardening
13. Man's First Cosmogony and Cosmology
14. The First Moral Ideals
15. The First 'Job'
16. The First Proverbs and Sayings
17. The First Animal Fables
18. The First Literary Debates
19. The First Biblical Parallels
20. The First 'Noah'
21. The First Tale of Resurrection
22. The First 'St. George'
23. The First Case of Literary Borrowing
24. Man's First Heroic Age
25. The First Love Song
26. The First Library Catalogue
27. Man's First Golden Age
28. The First 'Sick' Society
29. The First Liturgic Laments
30. The First Messiahs
31. The First Long-Distance Champion
32. The First Literary Imagery
33. The First Sex Symbolism
34. The First Mater Dolorosa
35. The First Lullaby
36. The First Literary Portrait
37. The First Elegies
38. Labor's First Victory
39. The First Aquarium

In addition to these "firsts" of the Near East is Enheduanna, the first author in the world known by name, the dog collar and leash, the corbel arch, and, from Egypt, the toothbrush and toothpaste, the true pyramid, and the first recorded female physicians – Merit-Ptah (circa 2700 BCE), physician of the royal court, and Pesehet (circa 2500 BCE), known as Lady Overseer of Female Physicians. Female dentists and doctors are referenced in ancient Mesopotamian texts, but not by name.

### [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) & [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/)

The Sumerians fell to incursions of Elamites and Amorites, and the latter established themselves, notably at Babylon. Under [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) (reign 1792-1750 BCE), Babylon became the center of the great Babylonian Empire, which controlled roughly the same region once held by Sargon of Akkad. After Hammurabi's death, his empire fell apart and was taken by the Hittites and Kassites, who established their own cultural and political centers.

[ ![An Auroch from the processional street at Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2782.jpg?v=1618619408) An Auroch from the processional street at Babylon Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2782/an-auroch-from-the-processional-street-at-babylon/ "An Auroch from the processional street at Babylon")The [Hittite](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) Period is divided by modern scholars into the era of the Old Kingdom (1700-1500 BCE) and the [New Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/New_Kingdom/) (also known as the Hittite Empire) of 1400-1200 BCE, with an interregnum period between, sometimes referred to as the [Middle Kingdom](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Middle_Kingdom/). The Hittite Empire was at its height under King [Suppiluliuma I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Suppiluliuma_I/) (reign circa 1344-1322 BCE) and his son and successor Mursilli II (reign circa 1321-1295 BCE), but declined during the [Bronze Age Collapse](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bronze_Age_Collapse/). Their decline was hastened by invasions by the [Kaska](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kaska/) tribe and the [Sea Peoples](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sea_Peoples/), who also contributed to the waning, sometimes temporarily and other times permanently, of other Near Eastern civilizations.

### Assyrians, Persians, & [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/)

The Assyrians under [Adad Nirari I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Adad_Nirari_I/) (reign circa 1307-1275 BCE) ended Hittite control in the region and established the city of [Ashur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ashur/) in prominence, from which the Assyrian Empire steadily spread. The Assyrian Empire was the largest in the world up to that time, conquering territories from northern Syria through modern-day Turkey and across through Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine. The [Neo-Assyrian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neo-Assyrian_Empire/) (912-612 BCE), the best-known and most well-documented period of their reign, continued the practice of forced deportation and relocation of the conquered, spreading the culture, religious ideas, and technologies of different people across the Near East.

The diverse population was controlled through the Assyrians' military strength and strict laws, but the different regions were also held by the elevation of the god Ashur to the level of supreme deity. Ashur was originally only the god of the city of Ashur, but as the Assyrian army engaged in campaigns of conquest, they carried their god with them, and, with each victory, shrines were erected in his honor. From a local god presiding over a single city, Ashur became the supreme deity of all the Near East. Kriwaczek comments:

> One might pray to Ashur not only in his own temple in his own city, but anywhere. As the Assyrian Empire expanded its borders, Ashur was encountered in even the most distant places. From faith in an omnipresent god to belief in a single god is not a long step. Since He was everywhere, people came to understand that, in some sense, local divinities were just different manifestations of the same Ashur.
> (231)

Monotheism had been attempted in Egypt under [Akhenaten](https://www.worldhistory.org/Akhenaten/) (reign 1353-1336 BCE), but it failed, and all traces of his reign were destroyed by his successors. It is unlikely that Akhenaten's monotheism influenced any later development of it elsewhere (though this is possible), but the rise of Ashur is thought to have been more influential in suggesting a supernatural power who lived, not in a temple, as had been the belief throughout the Near East, but who was everywhere at once. As Kriwaczek notes, this belief encouraged significant changes in how people saw themselves in relation to the natural world:

> Nature came to be desacralized, deconsecrated. Since the gods were outside and above nature, humanity – according to Mesopotamian belief created in the likeness of the gods and as servants to the gods – must be outside and above nature too. Rather than an integral part of the natural earth, the human race was now her superior and ruler.
> (229)

This belief also led to a decline in the status of [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/), a trend that had begun under the reign of Hammurabi when male deities began replacing earlier Sumerian and [Akkadian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/akkadian/) goddesses. The all-powerful male deity encouraged a belief in the superiority of men and the inferiority of women. After the Assyrian Empire fell to a coalition of their enemies in 612 BCE, this paradigm continued until circa 550 BCE, when the region was taken by [Cyrus II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyrus_the_Great/) (the Great, reign circa 550-530 BCE), founder of the [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/) (circa 550-330 BCE). Under [Cyrus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyrus/) II and his successors, women's status greatly improved (an aspect of their culture criticized by the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) historian [Herodotus](https://www.worldhistory.org/herodotus/)), even though the Persian supreme deity, [Ahura Mazda](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ahura_Mazda/), was also envisioned as an omnipresent male.

[ ![Faravahar at Persepolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/3049.jpg?v=1776269168) Faravahar at Persepolis Napishtim (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3049/faravahar-at-persepolis/ "Faravahar at Persepolis")Persian women ran their own businesses, served in the military, supervised males in the workplace, and were paid the same wages for the same jobs. Although [Zoroastrianism](https://www.worldhistory.org/zoroastrianism/) had replaced the earlier Iranian polytheism, some of those deities, like the goddess [Anahita](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anahita/), were still worshipped as aspects of Ahura Mazda, and some scholars believe this practice provided a balance lacking in the earlier Assyrian [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/).

The Persians introduced several cultural innovations familiar today, such as the postal system, hospitals, refrigeration, air conditioning, birthday celebrations and dessert, animal rights, the precursor of the guitar (the *sestar*), and even the English word *paradise* from their word for an enclosed, landscaped garden.

The Persian [Achaemenid](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Achaemenid/) Empire surpassed the Assyrian Empire as the largest and wealthiest in the world, but it was already in decline in 330 BCE when it fell to the armies of [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) the Great. Alexander established his own empire in the region and, in doing so, spread [Hellenistic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenic_World/) thought and culture throughout the Near East, a process that would be continued by his successors.

[ ![Map of the Achaemenid Persian Empire c. 500 BCE](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16107.png?v=1778036247-1764135286) Map of the Achaemenid Persian Empire c. 500 BCE Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16107/map-of-the-achaemenid-persian-empire-c-500-bce/ "Map of the Achaemenid Persian Empire c. 500 BCE")### Conclusion

After the [death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/) in 323 BCE, his generals fought each other for control of the empire in the [Wars of the Diadochi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Wars_of_the_Diadochi/). [Seleucus I Nicator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucos_I/) (reign 305-281 BCE) took Mesopotamia and established the [Hellenic](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) (312-63 BCE). The Seleucids combined Hellenic and Persian customs, expanding the empire toward the east until their power began to decline owing to a combination of factors, including the rise of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/), inefficient monarchs, and a territory too vast to maintain.

The Seleucids were replaced, even before their final fall, by the [Parthian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthia_(Empire)/) (247 BCE to 224 CE), which then gave way to the [Sassanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) Empire, both Persian political entities, which maintained the culture of the earlier Achaemenid Empire but had also been influenced by the Seleucids' Hellenism. The Sassanian Empire maintained a high level of cultural development, including religious tolerance (except in some notable instances), women's rights, and a focus on literacy in order to read the religious texts of the *[Avesta](https://www.worldhistory.org/Avesta/)*.

In 651, the Sassanians fell to the Muslim Arabs, who, in keeping with the practice of conquerors going back to the beginning of the region, suppressed the culture of the conquered and replaced it with their own. There were many aspects of [Persian culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Persian_Culture/) that were adopted, however, and as the Persians had preserved elements of earlier civilizations, aspects of these survived as well.

Still, the history of the ancient Near East was poorly understood until the 19th century, when excavations in the region uncovered the ruins of cities and the written works of the people. Up until the mid-19th century, Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian [hieroglyphics](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Hieroglyphs/) were considered some sort of ornamentation. Once they were understood to be written languages, the past opened up to the present, revealing some of the richest and most significant civilizations in the world.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Bertman, S. *Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia .* Oxford University Press, 2015.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0816043469/)
- [Brosius, M. *Women in Ancient Persia, 559-331 BC .* Clarendon Press, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0198152558/)
- [Farrokh, K. *Shadows in the Desert.* Osprey Publishing, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1846031087/)
- [Herodotus & Waterfield, R. *Herodotus: The Histories.* Oxford University Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0375727671/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *History Begins at Sumer.* University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0812212762/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.* University of Chicago Press, 1971.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0226452387/)
- [Kriwaczek, P. *Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.* Thomas Dunne Books, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B011T7G5JC/)
- [Leick, G. *The A to Z of Mesopotamia .* Scarecrow Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0810875772/)
- [Miller, J. M. & Hayes, J. H. *A History of Ancient Israel and Judah.* Westminster John Knox Press, 2006.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0664223583/)
- [Shaw, I. *The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt.* Oxford University Press, 2006.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0192804588/)
- [Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/111871816X/)
- [Wilkinson, T. *The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt.* Random House, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B004FGMZAI/)

## About the Author

Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)

## Timeline

- **10000 BCE**: Beginnings of [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) in the Middle East.
- **8000 BCE**: Ovens in use in the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/) are applied to [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) production.
- **7700 BCE**: First domesticated wheats in the [Fertile Crescent](https://www.worldhistory.org/Fertile_Crescent/).
- **7000 BCE**: Domestication of goats.
- **5000 BCE**: Irrigation and [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) begin in earnest in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 5000 BCE - 651 CE**: Dates of the history of the ancient [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/).
- **853 BCE**: Babylonian kings depend on Assyrian military support.
- **850 BCE**: [Medes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Medes/) migrate into Iran from Asia.
- **750 BCE**: Persians migrate into Iran from Asia.
- **734 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is captured by Chaldeans.
- **729 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is occupied by Assyrians.
- **722 BCE - 705 BCE**: Peak of the Assyrian [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) under the reign of [Sargon II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_II/).

## Questions & Answers

### What is the Near East?
Near East refers to the region of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Levant, and Persia, corresponding to modern Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and part of Turkey. 

### Is Near East the same as Middle East?
Yes. The term 'Near East' was coined in the 19th century to refer to the eastern part of the Ottoman Empire. It has since come to be used as a synonym for 'Middle East'. 

### What are the dates of the ancient Near East?
The ancient Near East is dated from c. 6500 BCE to 651 CE. 

### Are the civilizations of the Near East considered the oldest in the world?
Yes. The civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia are considered the oldest in the world, although the Indus Valley Civilization may actually be older. 


## External Links

- [The Morgan Library & Museum: From "Near East" to "Western Asia": A Brief History of Archaeology and Colonialism  by Erhan Tamur](https://www.themorgan.org/blog/near-east-western-asia-brief-history-archaeology-and-colonialism)
- [Smart History/Ancient Near East: Cradle of Civilization by Dr. Senta German](https://smarthistory.org/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization/)
- [Ancient Near East.Net/ Resource site for the Near East and Egypt](https://www.ancientneareast.net/)
- [Kiddle Encyclopedia: Ancient Near East Facts for Kids](https://kids.kiddle.co/Ancient_Near_East)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, J. J. (2026, March 25). Near East: A Modern Term for an Ancient Land. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Near\_East/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/)
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Near East: A Modern Term for an Ancient Land." *World History Encyclopedia*, March 25, 2026. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Near\_East/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/).
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Near East: A Modern Term for an Ancient Land." *World History Encyclopedia*, 25 Mar 2026, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Near\_East/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 25 March 2026. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.