---
title: Mongol Warfare
author: Mark Cartwright
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Warfare/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2025-11-27
---

# Mongol Warfare

_Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_

The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) conquered vast swathes of Asia in the 13th and 14th century CE thanks to their fast light cavalry and excellent bowmen, but another significant contribution to their success was the adoption of their enemies' tactics and technology that allowed them to defeat established military powers in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/), and Eastern [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/). Adapting to different challenges and terrain, the Mongols became adept at both siege and naval [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/), very different pursuits from their nomadic origins on the Asian steppe. In addition, diplomacy, espionage, and terror were used in equal measure to win many a [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) before it had even begun. Ultimately, the Mongols would establish the largest [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) the world had ever seen, and their ruthlessness in battle would cast a long shadow of fear over those they conquered with generals earning fearsome nicknames such as the 'hounds of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/)' and their soldiers being labelled 'the devil's horsemen.'

### A State for War

One of the main sources of legitimacy for a [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) tribal leader was his ability to successfully conduct warfare and acquire booty for his followers. Under [Genghis Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Genghis_Khan/) (r. 1206-1227 CE), the founder of the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) (1206-1368 CE), the Mongol people were thus reorganised to specifically gear the state for perpetual warfare. 98 units known as *minghan* or 'thousands' were created (and then later expanded) which were tribal units expected to provide the army with a levy of 1,000 men. The khan also had his own personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, the *kesikten*, which was the elite standing army of the Mongols and which trained commanders for the other divisions. A third source of troops was the armies raised from allies and conquered states, these outnumbered the Mongol contingents in the campaigns in China and Persia. Later, when [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/) (r. 1260-1294 CE) established the [Yuan dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) in China (1271-1368 CE), Mongol armies there were composed entirely of professional soldiers.

Mongol leaders ensured loyalty and increased their chances of success by promoting commanders based on merit rather than the use of clan seniority as had been the case before Genghis. Motivation was high because booty was shared equally, and there was even a dedicated body, the *jarqu*, which ensured booty was distributed correctly (for example, horses, slaves, precious metals, textiles, high-quality manufactured goods, and even food). Commanders could expect to receive both booty and land or tribute from conquered peoples. Ordinary soldiers could expect rewards, too, some compensation for their conscription, which any Mongol male from 14 to 60 years old was liable for.

[ ![Mongol with Horse & Camel](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11242.jpg?v=1685203383) Mongol with Horse & Camel Metropolitan Museum of Art (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11242/mongol-with-horse--camel/ "Mongol with Horse & Camel")At the same time as being generous with rewards, Genghis insisted on discipline and any soldier or commander who disobeyed orders was severely punished, lashings being the commonest method. An ordinary soldier could expect nothing less than the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) penalty for desertion, retreating when not ordered to, or sleeping when on sentry duty. Nevertheless, the khan did give his commanders great autonomy on the field of combat, and this flexibility usually reaped rewards.

Planning and logistics were another carefully considered area, best seen in the complex campaigns in southern Russia and Eastern Europe of 1237 to 1242 CE when multiple Mongol armies engaged their individual targets and then regrouped at predetermined times and locations. A significant help in knowing where both allies and enemies were at any one time was the excellent Mongol messenger service, the *yam*, with its series of posts stocked with supplies and fresh horses. Smoke signals were also used as a means of communication between separated divisions. Another strength was the willingness to recruit non-Mongols. Uyghur Turks were enrolled in large numbers, as were Kurds and Khitans, while Koreans and Chinese were a significant part of the forces which invaded [Japan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Japan/) in 1274 and 1281 CE. In short, then, the Mongols were made perpetually ready for war.

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### Training & Weapons

Warriors were prepared from childhood thanks to the Mongol tradition of having both young boys and girls participate in competitions of athletics, horse racing, wrestling, hunting, and archery. The Mongol warriors - mostly men but also sometimes [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/), too - were, then, already proficient at using battle axes, lances (often hooked to pull enemy riders from their mounts), spears, daggers, long knives, and sometimes swords which were typically short, light, and with a single cutting edge.

The Mongol weapon of choice was the composite bow, which could fire arrows double the distance of those in competing armies. In addition, warriors could shoot with accuracy while riding their horses at speed thanks to stirrups and wooden saddles with a high back and front which gave better stability so that an archer could turn and fire in any direction, including behind him. The composite bow was made of multiple layers of wood, bamboo or horn, making it both strong and flexible. As it was strung against its natural curve, the Mongol bow required some strength to draw but then fired arrows with a high degree of accuracy and penetration.

Arrowheads tended to be made from bone and, much more rarely, [metal](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/metal/) while shafts were made from wood, reed, or a combination of both, and fletchings from bird feathers. Arrow designs varied depending on their purpose - to wound at close range, fire at distant targets, carry poison, penetrate armour, or even whistle as a signal to other units. A typical mounted archer carried two or three bows and around 30 light and 30 heavier arrows in a quiver. Additional standard equipment included a horsehair lasso, a coil of rope, an axe, a file for making arrowheads, a sewing repair kit, a leather bag for food and to use as a float when crossing rivers, two leather bottles for liquids, and a cooking pot. Men slept in light versions of the classic [yurt](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yurt/) tent, one carried for every ten riders.

[ ![Mongolian Saddle](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/11245.jpg?v=1637611202) Mongolian Saddle Gary Todd (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11245/mongolian-saddle/ "Mongolian Saddle")To the Mongols, horses were everything - a means to travel, a source of wealth and a way to measure it, food, and the source of their great mobility in warfare. Mongol horses were relatively small but sturdy beasts with dense hair and capable of enduring hardships. They had excellent stamina, which allowed cavalry to travel a very impressive 95-120 kilometres (60-75 miles) in a single day. The Mongols had both light and heavy cavalry, and each rider typically had up to 16 spare horses giving them a very long range of manoeuvre. On the battlefield, cavalry units responded to orders conveyed by gongs and drums (although curiously the very first attack was always conducted in silence). Horses could also be a source of nourishment while on campaign by letting blood from the neck. This would have supplemented dry rations like cheese curd and cured meat.

### Armour

Mongol armour was light so as to not impede the speed of cavalry riders, but if worn, it was typically made of thick quilted felt or leather. Sometimes this soft armour, like the heavy coats many riders wore, could be strengthened by adding strips of metal, bone or hardened/lacquered leather but plate armour and chain mail were rare, although that captured from the enemy was sometimes worn. Learning from the Chinese, a [silk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk/) undershirt might be worn as this had the handy consequence of wrapping around the arrowhead if one was struck, protecting the wound and making the arrow easier to withdraw.

The head was protected by either an iron or hardened leather helmet, sometimes with a neck guard and a central top spike or ball and plume. An alternative was the traditional Mongol fur hat with side flaps and upturned brim. Shields, if used, were typically only carried by infantrymen and were most commonly small, circular, and made of wicker or hardened leather. Horses were sometimes given armour, made from the same materials mentioned above. Plate armour was restricted to the horse's head but, otherwise, some mounts were completely covered with padded armour.

[ ![Statue of Bo'orchu](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11243.jpg?v=1664283123) Statue of Bo'orchu Gary Todd (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11243/statue-of-boorchu/ "Statue of Bo'orchu")### Tactics

**Planning**

One of the important reasons for the Mongol success in warfare was their preparation before even meeting the enemy. Spies in the form of travelling merchants or priests and defectors gathered intelligence on the enemy's strengths and weaknesses and revealed if there were any dissenters either within or between the enemy's allies who could be a potential aid to the Mongol cause. A great meeting or *kurultai* of Mongol leaders was held before a large campaign to discuss plans and strategies in detail. Once in the field, intelligence continued to be gathered and scouts operated up to 110 kilometres (70 miles) ahead and either side of dispersed Mongol columns to ensure they were not caught off-guard or fell foul of an ambush.

**Manoeuvres**

Mongol armies moved extremely quickly and attempted to outmanoeuvre their opponents using speed and coordination. The aim was to only engage the enemy when absolutely necessary and to commit large numbers only when a specific weak spot had been identified. This strategy was designed to give maximum results for minimal losses. Cavalry units of around 1,000 men (a *minghan*) were subdivided into units of 100 (a *jagun*), which was in turn divided into units of 10 (an *arban*).

A Mongol army in the field was typically divided into wings operating either side of a central force and a vanguard. Indeed, even a Mongol camp was divided according to these groupings. A Mongol cavalry army rarely exceeded 10,000 riders in any one place at one time, even the very largest campaigns such as in Europe probably contained only three such 10,000-men divisions (*tumens*), the rest of the army, perhaps triple the size of the Mongol cavalry in some cases, was made of allies who conducted warfare according to their own traditions. The Mongols were usually outnumbered by their enemies in field battles but overcame this disadvantage by superior speed and tactics. A disadvantage of fielding relatively small armies was the difficulty in replacing casualties. Often vanquished troops were enlisted but in such campaigns as Eastern Europe, where loyalties were stronger, it did sometimes necessitate a withdrawal until reinforcements could arrive from Mongolia.

[ ![The Mongol Scroll, 1293 CE](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/10974.jpg?v=1769869334) The Mongol Scroll, 1293 CE Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10974/the-mongol-scroll-1293-ce/ "The Mongol Scroll, 1293 CE")A classic Mongol strategy was to attack with a small force and then feign a retreat which only led the enemy back to a larger Mongol force. Another favoured manoeuvre was the *tulughma*, that is to attack with a central body of cavalry - heavy cavalry in the front lines and lighter units behind, who then moved through gaps in the front lines - and while these moved forward as one, cavalry units moved on the wings to envelop the enemy forces. The tactic was a smaller-scale version of the *nerge*, the Mongol hunting strategy used over vast areas of steppe to corner wild game. Sometimes these wings were very extended and so allowed the Mongols to entirely surround an opposing army. A reserve of heavy cavalry then moved in for the kill and any escaping enemy troops were ruthlessly pursued, often for days after a battle.

Ambush was another common tactic, as was using smoke from burning grass or dust clouds to mask troop movements, or attacking at the least expected time such as during a blizzard. The Mongols also employed some unusual strategies to out-fox their enemies. For example, they sometimes used felt dummies and set them on horses in amongst cavalry units to make the enemy think they were facing a far larger force than they actually were. Another innovative strategy was to drop leaflets from kites over the besieged Jin [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Kaifeng (1232 CE) which encouraged people to defect for a cash reward.

**Terror**

One of the most successful strategies employed in Mongol warfare was terror. When a city was captured, for example, the entire civilian population could be executed - men, women, children, priests, even the cats and dogs - with a handful of survivors allowed to escape and tell of the atrocity in the neighbouring towns. Consequently, when towns heard of the Mongol's approach many surrendered without a fight in the hope of clemency, which was often given. An even subtler strategy was used in the conflict with the Jin Jurchen Dynasty of northern China in the first decade of the 13th century CE when the Mongols repeatedly sacked [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/), sometimes the same city several times, and then allowed the Jin to retake them, obliging them to deal with the chaos.

Another utterly ruthless strategy was to use prisoners as human shields when Mongol troops advanced on a fortified city unwise enough to put up resistance, even to dress up prisoners as Mongol warriors and march them in the front ranks so that defenders wasted their precious arrows on killing their own compatriots. A further source of terror was the Mongol treatment of the dead; bodies were mutilated and warriors often took trophies from the fallen, usually the ears of their victims.

In summary, then, the Mongols were unstoppable in field battles for all of the above reasons combined, as the noted military historian S. R. Turnbull remarks:

> Mongol field warfare was therefore an almost perfect combination of firepower, shock tactics and mobility. The moves themselves, built on a sound framework of experience, training and discipline, were performed like clockwork…They believed themselves to be invincible, and most of the vanquished believed it too, regarding them as a visitation from heaven and a punishment for sin. (27-8)

### Siege & Naval Warfare

The Mongols had one other ace up their armoured sleeves, the ability to adapt to new types of warfare. Siege warfare, for example, became necessary when the Mongols came up against such enemies as Song China, Persia, and Eastern European kingdoms. At first, the task of breaking down well-fortified cities tested Mongol resolve, but they soon learnt from their enemies and local advisors how to use gunpowder weapons such as small handheld cannons and bombs containing [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/), sulphur gas, or shrapnel that were hurled over city walls. They also had rockets, triple-firing crossbows, and large catapults powered by torsion, counterweights, or men pulling multiple levered ropes. Some catapults were mobile while others could be mounted in ships.

[ ![Japanese Samurai Attack Mongol Ships](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/10980.jpg?v=1765520113) Japanese Samurai Attack Mongol Ships Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10980/japanese-samurai-attack-mongol-ships/ "Japanese Samurai Attack Mongol Ships")Some sieges could still last for years despite the bombardments, such as that at the Song fortified city of Xiangyang, brought down by battering rams and catapults designed by two Islamic engineers. These static armies also required a much greater logistical support than the traditional cavalry units which were expected to live off the land as best they could until resupplied by trains of carts, packhorses, and camels, which were often managed by Mongol women. Another steep learning curve was how to master naval warfare. By the 1270s CE and the defeat of the Song, the Mongols had command of their own naval fleet which was comprised of 5,000 ships and 70,000 sailors, which were used at sea and on rivers. Massive fleets manned by Chinese and Koreans invaded Japan and Southeast Asia, but these larger ships were really designed for use as troop carriers (they were actually the same as merchant trading vessels) rather than as fighting ships. As ever, the cavalry was supposed to win the day once the expedition was established on dry land.

### Decline

The Mongols may have carved out an empire which stretched from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula but they were not always successful in their campaigns. Some cities did prove too tough to break down and logistical support was an ever-growing problem the further they campaigned away from their heartlands in Mongolia. Both invasions of Japan were foiled by a combination of stiff resistance and storms. The campaigns in Southeast Asia had some success but gave a mixed set of results overall, the Mongols struggling to cope with tropical jungle terrain, heavy rains, diseases, unfamiliar weapons like poisoned darts from blowpipes, war elephants, and effective guerrilla warfare tactics by the enemy. Even in China, they succumbed to the new great power in East Asia: the [Ming Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ming_Dynasty/). By 1368 CE, the Mongols were weakened by a series of droughts, famines, and dynastic disputes amongst their own elite. Indeed, one might say that the once-nomadic Mongols were really only defeated by themselves for they had become a part of the sedentary societies they had so long fought against.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Broadbridge, A.F. *Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire.* Cambridge University Press, 2018.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1108441009/)
- [Buell, P.D. *Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire.* Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2018.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1538111365/)
- [Ebrey, P.B. *Pre-Modern East Asia.* Cengage Learning, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1133606512/)
- [Lane, G. *Daily Life in the Mongol Empire.* Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0872209687/)
- [Rossabi, M. *A History of China.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1577181131/)
- [Saunders, J.J. *The History of the Mongol Conquests.* University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0812217667/)
- [Turnbull, S. *Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190-1400.* Routledge, 2019.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B01JXPUYO4/)
- [Turnbull, S. *Mongol Warrior 1200-1350.* Osprey Publishing, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/184176583X/)
- [Turnbull, S. *The Mongol Invasions of Japan, 1274 and 1281.* Osprey Publishing, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1846034566/)
- [Turnbull, S. *The Mongols.* Osprey Publishing, 1980.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0850453720/)

## About the Author

Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share.

## Timeline

- **1205 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the [Jurchen Jin state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) in northern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1205 CE - 1255 CE**: Life of the [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) military commander and grandson of [Genghis Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Genghis_Khan/), [Batu Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Batu_Khan/).
- **1206 CE - 1227 CE**: Reign of [Genghis Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Genghis_Khan/) as the ruler of the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1206 CE - 1368 CE**: The [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) rules in Central and East Asia.
- **1209 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the [Jurchen Jin state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) in northern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1209 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the Tangut state of Xi Xia.
- **1211 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the [Jurchen Jin state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) in northern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1212 CE - 1215 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack Song [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), sacking over 90 [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/).
- **1214 CE**: The [Jurchen Jin state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) signs a short-lived peace treaty with the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) and is obliged to pay tribute.
- **1215 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the Tangut state of Xi Xia.
- **1215 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) sack Beijing.
- **1215 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the [Jurchen Jin state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) in northern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1218 CE - 1220 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the Khwarazm [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) in Central Asia.
- **1219 CE**: A [Goryeo](https://www.worldhistory.org/Goryeo/) army allies with the [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) to attack the [Khitan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Khitan/) in northern [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/).
- **1221 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack northern Afghanistan.
- **1223 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) defeat an army of the [Kievan Rus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kievan_Rus/) at Kalka.
- **1229 CE - 1241 CE**: Reign of [Ogedei Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogedei_Khan/) as the ruler of the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1230 CE - 1231 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack the [Jurchen Jin State](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/).
- **1231 CE - 1232 CE**: [Ogedei Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogedei_Khan/) leads a [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) invasion into [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/).
- **1233 CE**: Kaifeng, capital of the [Jurchen Jin State](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/), falls after a lengthy siege by the [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **Feb 1234 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attack and [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the [Jurchen Jin State](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jurchen_Jin_Dynasty/) in northern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1235 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) invade northern Iraq and western Asia
- **1236 CE - 1242 CE**: Multiple [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) armies attack western Asia, Russia, Poland, and Hungary.
- **21 Dec 1237 CE**: The [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Ryazan (Riazan) is besieged and captured by the [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1238 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) invade Azerbaijan, Georgia, and [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/).
- **7 Feb 1238 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) capture the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Vladimir.
- **23 Mar 1238 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) capture the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Torshok.
- **6 Dec 1240 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) capture Kiev.
- **9 Apr 1241 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) defeat an army led by Henry the Pious, the Duke of Silesia, near Liegnitz (Legnica).
- **10 Apr 1241 CE - 11 Apr 1241 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) defeat an army led by Bela IV, king of Hungary, at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Mohi.
- **Dec 1241 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) capture Buda and Pest.
- **Dec 1241 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) capture the great [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Gran (Esztergom) in Hungary.
- **1253 CE - 1260 CE**: A [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) army led by Hulegu invades [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) and the Middle East.
- **1256 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) defeat the Ismailis (aka [the Assassins](https://www.worldhistory.org/The_Assassins/)) in [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **1257 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) invade Vietnam.
- **1257 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the Dali kingdom in southern [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1258 CE**: An uprising restores the monarchy in [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/) and makes peace with the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1258 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the [Abbasid Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Abbasid_Dynasty/). During this campaign there is the infamous sacking of Baghdad and murder of the caliph.
- **Dec 1259 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) besiege and capture Aleppo in [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/).
- **1260 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Ain Jalut; [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) advance to the heartland of [Islam](https://www.worldhistory.org/islam/) is halted.
- **1260 CE - 1264 CE**: [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/) fights a civil [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) with his brother Ariq Boke for control of the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1260 CE - 1294 CE**: Reign of [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/), ruler of the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1262 CE**: [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/) captures [Karakorum](https://www.worldhistory.org/Karakorum/) after his rival nAriq Boke (1219-1266 CE) used it as his base.
- **1268 CE**: [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/) resumes the [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) attacks on [Song Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Song_Dynasty/) [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **1270 CE**: Part of northern [Korea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Korea/) is conquered by the [Mongol Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/).
- **1273 CE**: Xiangyang falls into [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) hands.
- **1275 CE - 1279 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) led by [Kublai Khan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kublai_Khan/) attack and [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the last remnants of Song [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/).
- **28 Mar 1276 CE**: Lin'an, the capital of the [Song Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Song_Dynasty/), is captured by a [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) army.
- **1277 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/)/[Yuan Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) invade Burma.
- **19 Mar 1279 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/) complete their [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Song Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Song_Dynasty/) [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) with victory at the naval [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) at Yaishan.
- **1281 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/)/[Yuan Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) invade Vietnam for a second time.
- **1286 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/)/[Yuan Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) re-invade Vietnam.
- **1287 CE**: The [Mongols](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/)/[Yuan Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) re-invade Burma.
- **1292 CE**: A [Mongol](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Empire/)/[Yuan Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Yuan_Dynasty/) naval force attacks Java.

## External Links

- [Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire (video) | Khan Academy](https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/the-mongols/v/genghis-khan-and-the-mongol-empire)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Cartwright, M. (2019, October 10). Mongol Warfare. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Warfare/)
### Chicago
Cartwright, Mark. "Mongol Warfare." *World History Encyclopedia*, October 10, 2019. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Warfare/).
### MLA
Cartwright, Mark. "Mongol Warfare." *World History Encyclopedia*, 10 Oct 2019, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol\_Warfare/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mongol_Warfare/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 10 October 2019. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.