--- title: Minoan Civilization author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2025-02-04 --- # Minoan Civilization _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ The [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/) flourished in the Middle [Bronze Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/) (c. 2000 - c. 1450 BCE) on the island of [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/) located in the eastern [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/). With their unique art and [architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/architecture/), and the spread of their ideas through contact with other cultures across the [Aegean](https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/), the Minoans made a significant contribution to the development of Western European civilization. [Labyrinth](https://www.worldhistory.org/Labyrinth/)-like [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) complexes, vivid frescoes depicting scenes such as bull-leaping and processions, fine [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) jewellery, elegant stone vases, and [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) with vibrant decorations of marine life are all particular features of Minoan Crete. ### Arthur Evans & Discovery The archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans was first alerted to the possible presence of an ancient civilization on Crete by surviving carved seal stones worn as charms by native Cretans in the early 20th century CE. Excavating at [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/) from 1900 to 1905 CE, Evans discovered extensive ruins which confirmed the ancient accounts, both literary and mythological, of a sophisticated Cretan [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) and possible site of the legendary labyrinth and palace of King Minos. It was Evans who coined the term Minoan in reference to this legendary [Bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/) Age king. Evans, seeing what he believed to be the growth and decline of a unified culture on Crete, divided the island's Bronze Age into three distinct phases largely based on different pottery styles: - Early Bronze Age or Early Minoan (EM): 3000-2100 BCE - Middle Bronze Age or Middle Minoan (MM): 2100-1600 BCE - Late Bronze Age or Late Minoan (LM): 1600-1100 BCE The above divisions were subsequently refined by adding numbered subphases to each group (e.g. MM II). Radio-carbon dating and tree-ring calibration techniques have helped to further refine the dates so that the Early Bronze Age now begins c. 3500 BCE and the Late Bronze Age c. 1700 BCE. An alternative to this series of divisions, created by Platon, instead focuses on the events occurring in and around the major Minoan “palaces”. This scheme has four periods: - Prepalatial: 3000 - 2000/1900 BCE - Protopalatial: 2000/1900 - 1700 BCE - Neopalatial: 1700 - 1470/1450 BCE - Postpalatial: 1470/1450 - 1100 BCE Both of these schemes have since been challenged by more modern [archaeology](https://www.worldhistory.org/Archaeology/) and approaches to history and anthropology in general which prefer a more multilinear development of culture on Crete with a more complex scenario involving conflicts and inequalities between settlements and which also considers their cultural differences as well as their obvious similarities. [ ![Map of Minoan Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/348.png?v=1722477363) Map of Minoan Crete Bibi Saint-Pol (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/348/map-of-minoan-crete/ "Map of Minoan Crete")### Minoan Palace Settlements Minoan settlements, tombs, and cemeteries have been found all over Crete but the four principal palace sites (in order of size) were: - Knossos - [Phaistos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Phaistos/) - [Malia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Malia/) - [Zakros](https://www.worldhistory.org/Zakros/) At each of these sites, large, complex palace structures seem to have acted as local administrative, [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/), religious, and possibly political centres. The relationship between the palaces and the power structure within them or over the island as a whole is not clear due to a lack of archaeological and literary evidence. It is clear, however, that the palaces exerted some kind of localised control, in particular, in the gathering and storage of surplus materials - wine, oil, grain, precious metals and ceramics. Small towns, villages, and farms were spread around the territory seemingly controlled by a single palace. Roads connected these isolated settlements to each other and the main centre. There is a general agreement among historians that the palaces were independent from each other up to 1700 BCE, and thereafter they came under the sway of Knossos, as evidenced by a greater uniformity in architecture and the use of [Linear A](https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_A_Script/) [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) across various palace sites. The absence of fortifications in the settlements suggests a relatively peaceful co-existence between the different communities. However, the presence of weapons such as swords, daggers, and arrowheads, and defensive equipment such as armour and helmets would also suggest that peace may not always have been enjoyed. Minoan roads, too, have evidence of regular guardhouses and watchtowers suggesting that banditry, at least, troubled the unprotected traveller. [ ![Palace of Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/649.jpg?v=1740147007) Palace of Knossos Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/649/palace-of-knossos/ "Palace of Knossos")The palaces themselves covered two periods. The first palaces were constructed around 2000 BCE and, following destructive earthquakes and fires, rebuilt again c. 1700 BCE. These second palaces survived until their final destruction between 1500 BCE and 1450 BCE, once again by either [earthquake](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/earthquake/), fire, or possibly invasion (or a combination of all three). The palaces were well-appointed, monumental structures with large courts, colonnades, ceilings supported by tapered wooden columns, staircases, religious crypts, light-wells, extensive drainage systems, large storage magazines and even '[theatre](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/theatre/)' areas for public spectacles or religious processions. Reaching up to four stories high and spreading over several thousand square metres, the complexity of these palaces, the sport of bull-leaping, the worship of bulls as indicated by the presence throughout of sacred bulls' horns and depictions of double axes (or *labrys*) in stone and [fresco](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Fresco/) may all have combined to give birth to the legend of Theseus and the labyrinth-dwelling Minotaur so popular in later classical [Greek mythology](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Mythology/). ### [Religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) The religion of the Minoans remains sketchy, but details are revealed through art, architecture, and artefacts. These include depictions of religious ceremonies and rituals such as the pouring of libations, making food offerings, processions, feasts, and sporting events like bull-leaping. Natural forces and nature in general, manifested in such artworks as a voluptuous female mother-earth goddess figure and male figure holding several animals, seem to have been revered. Palaces contain open courtyards for mass gatherings and rooms often have wells and channels for the pouring of libations, as previously noted. As already mentioned, too, bulls are prominent in [Minoan art](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Art/), and their horns are an architectural feature of palace walls and a general decorative element in jewellery, frescoes, and pottery decoration. Dramatic rural sites such as hilltops and caves often show evidence of cult rituals being performed there. [ ![Minoan Snake Goddess, Knossos.](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/398.jpg?v=1766239151) Minoan Snake Goddess, Knossos. Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/398/minoan-snake-goddess-knossos/ "Minoan Snake Goddess, Knossos.")### Material Culture The sophistication of the Minoan culture and its trading capacity is evidenced by the presence of writing, firstly Cretan Hieroglyphic (c. 2000-1700 BCE) and then Linear A scripts (both, as yet, undeciphered), predominantly found on various types of administrative clay tablets. Seal impressions on clay were another important form of record keeping. A further example of the culture's high degree of development is the variety and quality of the art forms practised by the Minoans. Pottery finds reveal a wide range of vessels from wafer-thin cups to large storage jars (*pithoi*). Ceramics were initially hand-turned but then increasingly made on the potter's wheel. In decoration, there was a progression from flowing geometric designs in Kamares ware to vibrant naturalistic depictions of flowers, plants, and sea life in the later Floral and Marine styles. Common pottery shapes include three-handled [amphorae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Amphora/), tall beaked-jugs, squat round vessels with a false spout, beakers, small lidded boxes, and ritual vessels with figure-of-eight-shaped handles. Stone was also used to produce similar vessel types and *rhyta* (ritual vessels for pouring libations, often in the shape of animal heads). Large-scale figure [sculpture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Sculpture/) has not survived but there are many figurines in bronze and other materials. Early types in clay show the dress of the time with men (coloured red) wearing belted loincloths and [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) (coloured white) in long flowing dresses and open-fronted jackets. A leaping acrobat in ivory and the [faience](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Faience/) snake goddess already mentioned are notable works which reveal the Minoan love of capturing figures in active striking poses. [ ![Minoan Bull Leaping](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/396.jpg?v=1775473814) Minoan Bull Leaping Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/396/minoan-bull-leaping/ "Minoan Bull Leaping")Magnificent frescoes from the walls, ceilings, and floors of the palaces also reveal the Minoans' love of the sea and nature and give insights into religious, communal, and funeral practices. Subjects range in scale from miniature to larger-than-life size. The Minoans were one of the earliest cultures to paint natural landscapes without any humans present in the scene; such was their admiration of nature. Animals, too, were often depicted in their natural habitat, for example, monkeys, birds, dolphins, and fish. Although [Minoan frescoes](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/390/minoan-frescoes/) were often framed with decorative borders of geometric designs, the principal fresco itself, on occasion, went beyond conventional boundaries such as corners and covered several walls of a single room, surrounding the viewer. ### Aegean Contacts The Minoans, as a seafaring culture, were also in contact with foreign peoples throughout the Aegean, as evidenced by the Near Eastern and [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) influences in their early art but also in the later export trade, notably the exchange of pottery and foodstuffs such as oil and wine in return for precious objects and materials such as [copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/) from [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/) and Attica and ivory from Egypt. Several Aegean islands, especially in the [Cyclades](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyclades/), display the characteristics of a palace-centred [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/) and political structure as seen on Crete while Minoan artists, especially fresco painters, took their skills to the royal palaces of Egypt and the Levant. [ ![Minoan Vase in Marine Style](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/367.jpg?v=1740147014) Minoan Vase in Marine Style Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/367/minoan-vase-in-marine-style/ "Minoan Vase in Marine Style")### Decline The reasons for the demise of the Minoan civilization continue to be debated. Palaces and settlements show evidence of fire and destruction c. 1450 BCE, but not at Knossos (which was destroyed perhaps a century later). The rise of the [Mycenaean civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mycenaean_Civilization/) in the mid-2nd millennium BCE on the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) mainland and the evidence of their cultural influence on later Minoan art and trade make them the most likely cause. However, other suggestions include earthquakes and volcanic activity with a consequent tsunami. The eruption of [Thera](https://www.worldhistory.org/thera/) (the present-day island of Santorini) may have been particularly significant, although, the exact date of this cataclysmic eruption is disputed and therefore its connection with the end of the Minoan period remains unclear. The most likely scenario was probably a fatal mix of natural environmental damage and competition for wealth weakening the structure of society, which was then exploited by invading Mycenaeans. Whatever the cause, most of the Minoan sites were abandoned by 1200 BCE and Crete would not return to the Mediterranean stage of history until the 8th century BCE when it was colonised by [Archaic](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Archaic/) Greeks. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - Bagnall, R.S. *The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 - [Cline, E.H. *The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199873607/) - Davaras, C. *East Crete.* Hannibal, Athens - Davaras, C. *Malia.* Hannibal, Athens - Davaras, C. *Phaistos.* Hannibal, Athens - Davaras, C. *The Palace Of Knossos.* Hannibal, Athens, 2010 - [Higgins, R. *Minoan and Mycenaean Art.* Thames & Hudson, 1997.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0500203032/) - [Hornblower, S. *The Oxford Classical Dictionary.* Oxford University Press, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199545561/) - [Hutchinson, R.W. *Prehistoric Crete.* Pelican / Penguin Books, 1963.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B001PT8R0U/) - [Stylianos, A. *Minoan Civilization.* Heraclion, 1969.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B0007IZNTS/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **3000 BCE**: Stone tombs on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **c. 2000 BCE**: [Pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) wheel introduced to [Minoan civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **2000 BCE - 1700 BCE**: First [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) at [Phaistos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Phaistos/). - **c. 2000 BCE - c. 1650 BCE**: Cretan Hieroglyphic [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/) is in use. - **2000 BCE - 1450 BCE**: [Minoan civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) in [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/) and the [Aegean](https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/). - **2000 BCE - 1400 BCE**: [Phaistos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Phaistos/)' greatest cultural height. - **1900 BCE**: First [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) at [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/). - **c. 1900 BCE - c. 1675 BCE**: First [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) at [Malia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Malia/). - **1900 BCE - 1500 BCE**: Sphinxes are represented in [Minoan art](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Art/) in [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/), plaques and fabrics. - **c. 1850 BCE - c. 1450 BCE**: The [Linear A script](https://www.worldhistory.org/Linear_A_Script/) of the [Minoan civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) is in use. - **1700 BCE**: Second [Palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) of [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/) on [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **1700 BCE - 1400 BCE**: The [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) in the [Cyclades](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyclades/) is increasingly influenced by [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **1675 BCE - 1450 BCE**: Second [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) at [Malia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Malia/). - **1650 BCE - 1550 BCE**: [Knossos](https://www.worldhistory.org/knossos/) survives [Thera](https://www.worldhistory.org/thera/) eruption. - **c. 1600 BCE**: [Phaistos disk](https://www.worldhistory.org/Phaistos_Disk/) manufactured. - **c. 1600 BCE**: [Rhodes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rhodes/) has significant contact with [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/). - **1500 BCE - 1450 BCE**: The 'Harvester Vase' of [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) origin depicts a [sistrum](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sistrum/) player. - **c. 1450 BCE**: [Earthquake](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/earthquake/) and fire ends the [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) period at [Malia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Malia/). - **c. 1450 BCE**: Destruction of [Minoan](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Minoan/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) at [Zakros](https://www.worldhistory.org/Zakros/). ## Questions & Answers ### What is the Minoan civilization known for? The Minoan civilization is known for its Bronze Age cities on Crete which had large palace-like structures. Knossos was the largest city and location of the labyrinth and minotaur of Greek mythology. ### What are three important features of Minoan culture? The Minoans on Bronze Age Crete are famous for their large palace-like buildings, their vibrant and colourful frescoes in these palaces, and their pottery which is often decorated with scenes of marine life. ### Why are they called Minoans? The name "Minoans" was coined by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in reference to Minos, the mythical king of Crete in Greek mythology. ### How do the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations differ? The Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations are very similar since the first influenced the second. The Mycenaeans built palaces which influenced later Greek buildings and were more warlike, as indicated in their art which often shows warriors, weapons, and shields. ## External Links - [Ep. 013 – Akrotiri, Atlantis, and the Thera Eruption](http://maritimehistorypodcast.com/ep-013-akrotiri-atlantis-and-the-thera-eruption/) - [Minoan Crete | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mino/hd_mino.htm) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2018, March 29). Minoan Civilization. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan\_Civilization/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Minoan Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia*, March 29, 2018. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan\_Civilization/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Minoan Civilization." *World History Encyclopedia*, 29 Mar 2018, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan\_Civilization/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Minoan_Civilization/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 29 March 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.