--- title: Miklós Horthy author: Liam Athas source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos_Horthy/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2026-07-20 --- # Miklós Horthy _Authored by [Liam Athas](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/liam.44f/)_ Miklós Horthy (1868-1957) was a Hungarian admiral and statesman who served as regent for the Kingdom of Hungary from 1920 until his forced abdication in 1944. During the interwar period and for most of World [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) II, Horthy played a critical but controversial role in both Hungary's foreign and domestic affairs. Beginning his career in the Austro-Hungarian navy in 1882, Horthy rose through the ranks to become vice-admiral and later commander-in-chief in 1918. Following the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I (1914-1918), Horthy led the National Army against the Hungarian Soviet Republic and became regent for the re-established Kingdom of Hungary in 1920. During the late 1930s, Horthy's conservative government increasingly aligned itself with Nazi Germany, signing the Tripartite Pact in November 1940 and participating in the 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. In 1944, Horthy was overthrown by a Nazi-backed coup after attempting to sign an armistice with the Allies. Following Allied capture, he was released in December of 1945 and spent the remainder of his life exiled in Portugal until his [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) on 9 February 1957. Today Horthy's legacy remains deeply controversial due to his authoritarian rule, alliance with the Nazis, and disputed role in the Holocaust. ### *Early Career* Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya was born on 18 June 1868 in Kenderes, Austria-Hungary, to István Horthy and Paula Halassy. Ennobled since 1635, the Horthy family owned a large 1,500-acre estate and had connections to the Hungarian House of Magnates. During his childhood, Horthy's family wealth allowed him to have a detailed education, including studies in [literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/), ancient classics, and language proficiency in German, French, English, and later Italian and Croatian. At the age of 14, Horthy joined the Imperial and Royal Naval Academy in Fiume and served in several overseas missions across the [Mediterranean](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/mediterranean/) before becoming an officer. Upon his graduation, in 1892, Horthy was invited to sail around the world and made stops throughout [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/), Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, and other Pacific islands. After briefly serving as a translator for a joint parliamentary review in Vienna, Horthy met and married Magdolna Purgly de Jószáshely (1881-1959) in 1901. Together, the two had four children: Magdolna (1902-1918), Paulette (1903-1940), István (1904-1942), and Miklós Jr. (1907-1993). Horthy would outlive all of them except for Miklós Jr. Following his promotion to captain of the *Taurus* in 1908, Horthy was sent as part of a diplomatic mission to the [Ottoman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ottoman_Empire/), where he witnessed the Young Turks Revolution. Credited with helping save the life of the Austrian ambassador, Horthy evacuated the diplomatic mission and safely returned them to Austria. Impressed by his actions during the crisis, Horthy was made a naval *aide-de-camp* to Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph in 1911. In this position, Horthy grew to greatly admire and respect the emperor. He became an important naval advisor to the monarch, oversaw daily court routines, and took up painting. ### Naval Career in World War I Following the outbreak of the First World War on 28 July 1914, Horthy was transferred from his imperial position in Vienna to the Austro-Hungarian naval base in Pula. There, he was put in command of the pre-dreadnought SMS *Habsburg* and the modern light cruiser SMS *Novara*. During his captaincy of the *Novara*, Horthy earned a reputation for bravery and boldness due to his many successful missions across the Adriatic Sea. This included raiding the Italian coast, sinking several enemy warships, and escorting German U-boats, which won him the Iron Cross. Horthy's most notable military achievement, however, was his victory at the [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of the Strait of Otranto – the largest naval engagement of the war within the Adriatic Sea. Facing a combined force of British, French, and Italian ships, Horthy led his smaller Austro-Hungarian fleet to victory and sank more than a dozen enemy vessels. In the final moments of the battle, an explosion wounded Horthy and forced him to command from a stretcher until falling unconscious. His wounds left him with hearing trouble for the rest of his life. [ ![Map of Europe at the End of WW I, 1918](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/18127.png?v=1783952647-1783952732) Map of Europe at the End of WW I, 1918 Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18127/map-of-europe-at-the-end-of-ww-i-1918/ "Map of Europe at the End of WW I, 1918")In March of 1918, Miklós Horthy was promoted to admiral and commander-in-chief of the Imperial Navy by the new Austro-Hungarian ruler, Charles I (as Emperor of Austria) and Charles IV (as King of Hungary). Shortly after his promotion, Horthy attempted to break the Entente blockade of Austria and raid vital shipping lanes by staging another attack on the Strait of Otranto – this time with several larger battleships. However, after an Italian torpedo sank the dreadnought SMS *Szent István*, Horthy called off the mission. For the remainder of the war, Horthy managed to keep much of the Austrian fleet intact until 31 October 1918, when he was ordered to surrender the fleet to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs as part of Austria-Hungary's surrender in World War I. ### Interwar Period & Rise to Regency Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the abdication of the Habsburg monarchy at the end of World War I, Hungary experienced a complex period of political instability marked by successive revolutions, foreign occupation, and territorial ambiguity. The newly formed liberal government under Mihály Károlyi proved unable to resist advancing Czechoslovak, Romanian, and Serbian forces or secure favorable terms from the Entente powers. In March of 1919, the Károlyi government collapsed and was supplanted by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic led by Béla Kun. After a rapid decline in the government's popularity, however, anti-communist politicians organized a counterrevolution in which Horthy accepted command of its National Army. In August of 1919, the Communist government collapsed following an offensive invasion by Romanian forces, which occupied Budapest. Under pressure from the Entente, Romanian troops withdrew several months later, allowing the counterrevolutionary government to establish control over the capital. This period concluded with the controversial signing of the Treaty of Trianon on 4 June 1920, which greatly reduced Hungary's economic power, severed its access to the sea, shattered national prestige, and shrank the nation to roughly one-third of its prewar territory and population. Critically, though only about a quarter of the lost population was Hungarian, most new borders did not follow ethnic boundaries, greatly flaring ethnic tensions. Hungary also lost 80% of its timber and iron ore production, was prohibited from fielding an air force, and had its army reduced to a maximum of 35,000 soldiers. [ ![Europe after The Treaty of Versailles](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/19479.png?v=1778673269-1727071617) Europe after The Treaty of Versailles Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19479/europe-after-the-treaty-of-versailles/ "Europe after The Treaty of Versailles")During the counterrevolution, Horthy's National Army was responsible for a wave of political violence known as the White Terror, during which suspected communists, socialists, and Jews were subjected to execution, torture, and intimidation. Although historians continue to debate the extent of Horthy's responsibility, most agree that he was aware of the violence but did little to restrain it until it began to undermine the legitimacy of the emerging conservative government. The White Terror gradually subsided following the consolidation of the new regime in 1921. Rather than abolish the monarchy, Hungary was re-established as the Kingdom of Hungary. Though most conservative politicians rejected republicanism, the Entente powers firmly opposed the restoration of the Habsburg dynasty, fearing it would destabilize postwar Central [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/). As a compromise, the Hungarian parliament established a regency and elected Horthy as regent in March of 1920 by an overwhelming majority. Although the former Habsburg king, Charles IV, attempted to reclaim the throne twice in 1921, both restoration attempts failed after opposition from both the Entente and the Hungarian government. Because the list of potential monarchs was unpopular and Horthy himself refused, nor was he supported, to take the throne, the regency became a permanent feature of the Hungarian government, allowing Horthy to remain in power until his removal in 1944. Throughout the 1920s, Horthy served as head of state, while Prime Minister István Bethlen (1874-1946) oversaw the consolidation of the new government. Though there was economic growth and political stabilization, Hungary also developed into an authoritarian parliamentary regime that combined conservative nationalism, anti-communism, and a strong resolve to revise the Treaty of Trianon. Suffrage was restricted, communist organizations were banned, and political opposition was tightly controlled through administrative and electoral measures. Although Horthy rarely involved himself in the day-to-day administration of government, he exercised considerable influence over the appointment of prime ministers, foreign policy, and the armed forces, helping shape the authoritarian-democratic direction of interwar Hungary. Contemporary historians often cite his regency as moderately popular. ### Prelude World War II Throughout the 1930s, Hungarian foreign policy remained fixated on the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. Following the rise of the Nazis in 1933, fascism rose to greater prominence in Hungary, particularly through the Party of National Will and the later Arrow Cross Party. This was because many conservative politicians viewed the economic growth and diplomatic success of the Nazis – such as the expansion of the German army and the remilitarization of the Rhineland – as a potential path towards Hungary's own revision of Trianon. Though Horthy himself is not described by contemporaries as a fascist, he ambivalently collaborated with prominent fascist politicians like Prime Minister Gyula Gömbös. During this period, Horthy also forged strong diplomatic ties with fascist leaders [Adolf Hitler](https://www.worldhistory.org/Adolf_Hitler/) and [Benito Mussolini](https://www.worldhistory.org/Benito_Mussolini/) as he perceived them as principal European powers willing to support Hungarian territorial revision as well as secret rearmament. Horthy did, however, continue to work with Entente nations like France, Yugoslavia. and Romania. In the 1938 Bled agreement, the Treaty of Trianon was revised to revoke all military restrictions and allow Hungary to field a larger army and air force. This agreement marked the first major international revision of the postwar military settlement. [ ![Reich Chancellery with Nazi Swastikas and Hungarian Flags](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/21944.jpg?v=1784215370-1784271490) Reich Chancellery with Nazi Swastikas and Hungarian Flags Bundesarchiv (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21944/reich-chancellery-with-nazi-swastikas-and-hungaria/ "Reich Chancellery with Nazi Swastikas and Hungarian Flags")After Nazi Germany annexed the Sudetenland in October of 1938, Hungary used German and Italian mediation to secure the First Vienna Award. Under the guise of correcting ethnic boundaries, this treaty transferred Southern Slovakia – a region with substantial ethnic Hungarians – from Czechoslovakia to Hungary. Although Horthy declined to participate in [Hitler's occupation of Czechoslovakia](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2555/hitlers-occupation-of-czechoslovakia/) in March of 1939, he authorized the occupation and annexation of neighboring Carpathian Ruthenia. After Nazi Germany decided on the [invasion of Poland in 1939](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2559/the-invasion-of-poland-in-1939/), Horthy and recently appointed Prime Minister Pál Teleki (1879-1941) adopted a policy of formal neutrality while continuing to pursue territorial revision through diplomacy. Following the collapse of France in 1940, Hungary renewed its claims against Romania over Transylvania. Through German and Italian arbitration, the Second Vienna Award transferred Northern Transylvania to Hungary in August 1940. Although the region remained ethnically mixed, it contained a large Hungarian population and was widely viewed within Hungary as one of the principal injustices of the Treaty of Trianon. Seeking to preserve German support for further territorial revision, Horthy's government joined the Tripartite Pact in November 1940, formally aligning Hungary with the Axis powers. Despite Hungary's formal alliance with Germany, Horthy and the conservative government continued to pursue a policy of limited neutrality while seeking to preserve Hungary's territorial gains. This balancing act became increasingly difficult as Germany's influence across Europe expanded and Hungary grew more dependent on German political and economic support. After a pro-Allied coup in Yugoslavia prompted Hitler to order an invasion in April of 1941, Germany demanded Hungarian participation and, swayed by the promise of territory and renewed access to the sea, Horthy authorized the attack. [ ![Miklós Horthy Meeting Adolf Hitler](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/21943.jpg?v=1784214292-1784271341) Miklós Horthy Meeting Adolf Hitler National Archives (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21943/miklos-horthy-meeting-adolf-hitler/ "Miklós Horthy Meeting Adolf Hitler")Faced with violating Hungary's recently signed Treaty of Eternal Friendship with Yugoslavia, Teleki committed suicide on 3 April 1941, believing that Hungary had sacrificed its honor and independence. He was succeeded by László Bárdossy and his pro-German camp, under whom Hungary officially abandoned its policy of neutrality. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union code-named [Operation Barbarossa](https://www.worldhistory.org/Operation_Barbarossa/), on 22 June, Horthy also supported a Hungarian declaration of war against the Soviets. It would not be until December of 1941, however, that war between Hungary and the other Allied nations of the UK and USA was formally declared. ### During World War II Though Horthy did not play a major military role on the Eastern Front in World War II, his political sway within Hungary was still extremely powerful. A proclaimed anti-Semite, over the course of his regency, several anti-Semitic laws were passed, particularly between 1938 and 1942, which restricted the social, economic, and occupational freedoms of Hungarian Jews. While Horthy rejected Hitler's genocidal policies and earlier demands to enact mass Jewish deportations, his government was also held responsible for several massacres and war crimes across occupied Europe. This includes the Kamianets-Podilskyi Massacre on 27 August of 1941 and the Novi Sad raid in January of 1942. While primary sources showcase Horthy's initial enthusiasm for war against the Soviet Union, by early 1942, it is evident that Horthy was already looking to put distance between Hungary, Germany, and the war. He replaced pro-German prime minister László Bárdossy with moderate Miklós Kállay on 9 March 1942 and opened up backdoor communications with Allied representatives. On 20 August 1942, his enthusiasm was further diminished when his son István – a fighter pilot and vice-regent – was killed in action. [ ![World War II in Europe, November 1942](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/18673.png?v=1772041637-1772041651) World War II in Europe, November 1942 Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18673/world-war-ii-in-europe-november-1942/ "World War II in Europe, November 1942")Following the Axis defeat at the [Battle of Stalingrad](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2696/battle-of-stalingrad/) in February 1943 and the devastation of the 2nd Hungarian Army, Horthy once again refused an order from Hitler to begin the mass deportation and extermination of Hungary's 800,000 Jews. What's more, he also authorized secret conversations with Allied negotiators to look for an armistice. Fearing Horthy would surrender to the Soviets, on 19 March 1944, the Nazis launched Operation Margarethe, in which Horthy was lured to a conference in Salzburg while German troops occupied Hungary. Caught off guard, neither the Hungarian government nor the army resisted. Though Horthy was allowed to remain regent, his powers were heavily curtailed, and the Nazis replaced leading political figures as well as the prime minister with pro-Nazi Döme Sztójay. Following the German occupation, Nazi and Arrow Cross authorities also began the large-scale deportation and extermination of Hungarian Jews. Prior to German occupation in 1944, around 63,000 Hungarian Jews had perished. By the end of the war, nearly 560,000 were murdered. ### Coup & Exile With the Soviet army approaching Hungary, the collapse of Romania in August of 1944, and protests from world leaders over the extermination of Hungarian Jews, Horthy attempted to reconsolidate his political position. On 29 August 1944, he ousted pro-Nazi officials like Prime Minister Döme Sztójay and placed conservative Géza Lakatos into power. Horthy also halted all Jewish deportations and reopened peace negotiations with Allied officials. On 15 October, Horthy announced that an armistice with the Soviet Union had been reached and ordered the Hungarian army to surrender. Though quiet in the wake of Horthy's halt of Jewish deportations, Nazi forces had anticipated the armistice and immediately launched Operation Panzerfaust on 15 October 1944 to remove Horthy from office. They kidnapped his only remaining child, Miklós Horthy Jr, and flew him to Germany for leverage as a hostage. German and Arrow Cross soldiers then stormed Castle Hill and forced Horthy at gunpoint to abdicate in favor of Arrow Cross leader Ferenc Szálasi. Jewish exterminations were immediately resumed while Horthy and his family were deported to Bavaria and placed under house arrest. Following Germany's surrender on 7 May 1945, Horthy was liberated and subsequently detained by American forces. [ ![Miklós Horthy Waiting with Other Witnesses at Nuremberg](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/21945.jpg?v=1784216518-1784271750) Miklós Horthy Waiting with Other Witnesses at Nuremberg United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21945/miklos-horthy-waiting-with-other-witnesses-at-nure/ "Miklós Horthy Waiting with Other Witnesses at Nuremberg")Though Yugoslavian and Hungarian Communist leaders requested Horthy's trial for war crimes, American diplomats and Joseph Stalin refused to indict Horthy. After testifying at the [Nuremberg trials](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nuremberg_Trials/), Horthy and his family were officially released. Unable to return to Hungary due to the newly formed Communist government, Horthy was exiled to Estoril, Portugal. Living primarily off funds from American diplomats, Hungarian Jews and exiles, and Pope Pius XII, he spent the remainder of his life [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) his memories until his death on 9 February 1957. ### Controversial Legacy Today, Miklós Horthy remains a controversial and polarizing figure in Hungarian history. On the one hand, supporters often credit him with restoring political stability after the successive revolutions of 1918-1920 and leading Hungary's efforts to revise the unpopular Treaty of Trianon. Supporters also credit him with keeping much of the Holocaust out of Hungary before 1944, taking a pragmatic approach to foreign affairs in Nazi-occupied Europe, and attempting to withdraw Hungary from the Axis during the final bloody stages of World War II. [ ![Miklós Horthy Bust at Kenderes](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/21946.jpg?v=1784217654-1784272055) Miklós Horthy Bust at Kenderes Csanády (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21946/miklos-horthy-bust-at-kenderes/ "Miklós Horthy Bust at Kenderes")Critics, on the other hand, emphasize his authoritarian rule, his government's enactment of anti-Jewish legislation, and Hungary's alliance with Nazi Germany, as well as his own collaboration. Critics also hold Horthy responsible for the persecution and deportation of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews during the Holocaust after 1944, as well as the actions of Hungarian soldiers in war crimes across occupied Europe. As a result, Horthy's legacy continues to be the subject of historical and political debate within both Hungary and internationally. Following the fall of Hungarian communism in 1989, Horthy's remains were moved from Portugal by his family to be reburied in his hometown of Kenderes in 1993. Though more than 10,000 people attended the ceremony, the day was also marked by large-scale protests in Budapest. In November of 2013, a statue of Horthy was placed in a Calvinist Church in central Budapest, which received a mixed reception. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Athas, Liam. *Miklós Horthy: The Hungarian Anti-Hero.* Reindeer Publishing, 2023.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B0CHL585M6/) - [Braham, Randolph L. *The Politics of Genocide.* Wayne State University Press, 2000.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0814326919/) - [Cornelius, Deborah S. *Hungary in World War II.* Fordham University Press, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0823233448/) - [Horthy, Nicholas & Roosevelt, Nicholas & Sloan, Sam. *A Life for Hungary.* Ishi Press, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/4871879135/) - Jane Perlez. "Reburial Is Both a Ceremony and a Test for Today's Hungary." *New York Times*, September 5, 1993, pp. Section 1, Page 18. - [Sakmyster, Thomas. *Hungary's Admiral on Horsebackós Horthy, 1918-1944.* Helena History Press LLC, 2022.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1943596263/) ## About the Author Liam Athas is a historical researcher, writer, and law student at William and Mary. He graduated from Macalester College in 2026 with degrees in history and political science, and has published several books and articles on a range of historical topics. ## Timeline - **1868 CE - 1957 CE**: Life of Miklós Horthy, admiral and regent of the Kingdom of Hungary. - **1917 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of the Strait of Otranto. - **31 Oct 1918 CE**: As part of Austria-Hungary's surrender in WWI, Miklós Horthy is ordered to surrender the Hungarian fleet. - **1 Mar 1920 CE**: Miklós Horthy is elected the regent of the Kingdom of Hungary. - **4 Jun 1920 CE**: The Treaty of Trianon is signed between the Allies and Hungary after WWI. - **22 Aug 1938 CE**: The Bled agreement revokes military restrictions imposed on Hungary at Trianon. - **2 Nov 1938 CE**: The First Vienna Award. - **30 Aug 1940 CE**: The Second Vienna Award. - **20 Nov 1940 CE**: Hungary joins the Tripartite Pact, formally allying itself with the Axis powers. - **19 Mar 1944 CE**: Operation Margarethe: German troops occupy Hungary. - **15 Oct 1944 CE**: Hungary surrenders to the Soviet Union. Nazi Germany launches Operation Panzerfaust to remove Miklós Horthy from power. ## Cite This Work ### APA Athas, L. (2026, July 20). Miklós Horthy. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos\_Horthy/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos_Horthy/) ### Chicago Athas, Liam. "Miklós Horthy." *World History Encyclopedia*, July 20, 2026. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos\_Horthy/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos_Horthy/). ### MLA Athas, Liam. "Miklós Horthy." *World History Encyclopedia*, 20 Jul 2026, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos\_Horthy/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Miklos_Horthy/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Liam Athas](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/liam.44f/ "User Page: Liam Athas"), published on 20 July 2026. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). 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