---
title: Mesopotamia: The Beginning of Beginnings
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-02-19
---
# Mesopotamia: The Beginning of Beginnings
_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_
Mesopotamia (from the [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/), meaning "between two rivers") was an ancient region located in the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/) (Middle East) bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau, corresponding to modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/), Kuwait, and [Turkey](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/) and known as the [Fertile Crescent](https://www.worldhistory.org/Fertile_Crescent/) and the "cradle of [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/)."
The "two rivers" of the name refer to the Tigris and the Euphrates, and the land was known as *Al-Jazirah* (the island) to the Arabs as a fertile land surrounded by water. The term "Fertile Crescent" was coined by Egyptologist J. H. Breasted (1865-1935) in 1916 to describe the region at the north end of the Persian Gulf, associated with the biblical [Garden of Eden](https://www.worldhistory.org/Garden_of_Eden/).
Mesopotamia was the home of many different civilizations spanning thousands of years, which contributed significantly to world [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) and progress. Many of the aspects of daily life taken for granted in the present day, such as [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/), the wheel, a code of laws, the sail, the concept of the 24-hour day, [beer](https://www.worldhistory.org/Beer/)-brewing, civil rights, and irrigation of crops all were first developed in the land between two rivers, which was home to the great Mesopotamian civilizations, the beginning of beginnings.
### The Cradle of Civilization
Unlike the more unified civilizations of [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) or [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), Mesopotamia was a collection of varied cultures whose only real bonds were their [script](https://www.worldhistory.org/script/), their gods, and their attitude toward [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/). The social customs, laws, and even language of the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) people differs from the [Akkadian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/akkadian/) Period, for example, and cannot be assumed to correspond to those of the Babylonian civilizations; it does seem, however, that the rights of women (during some periods), the importance of literacy, and the [pantheon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pantheon/) of the gods were indeed shared throughout the region, though the gods had different names in various regions and periods.
As a result of this, Mesopotamia should be more properly understood as a region that produced multiple empires and civilizations, rather than any single civilization. Even so, Mesopotamia is known as the "cradle of civilization" primarily because of two developments that occurred there, in the region of [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/), in the 4th millennium BCE:
- the rise of the city as recognized today
- the invention of writing (although writing is also known to have developed in Egypt, in the [Indus Valley](https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization/), in [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/), and to have taken form independently in Mesoamerica)
[  Mesopotamian Record of Barley Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4851/mesopotamian-record-of-barley/ "Mesopotamian Record of Barley")The invention of the wheel is also credited to the Mesopotamians; in 1922, the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered "the remains of two four-wheeled wagons, \[at the site of the ancient city of [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/)\] the oldest wheeled vehicles in history ever found, along with their leather tires" (Bertman, 35). Other important developments or inventions credited to the Mesopotamians include, but are by no means limited to, domestication of animals, [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) and irrigation, common tools, sophisticated weaponry and [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/), the [chariot](https://www.worldhistory.org/chariot/), wine, beer, demarcation of time into [hours](https://www.worldhistory.org/Horae/), minutes, and seconds, religious rites, the sail (sailboats), and legal codes. Orientalist [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) [Noah](https://www.worldhistory.org/Noah/) Kramer, in fact, has listed 39 "Firsts" in human civilization in his work *History Begins at Sumer*. These include:
> 1. The First Schools
> 2. The First Case of 'Apple Polishing'
> 3. The First Case of Juvenile Delinquency
> 4. The First '[War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) of Nerves'
> 5. The First Bicameral Congress
> 6. The First Historian
> 7. The First Case of Tax Reduction
> 8. The First '[Moses](https://www.worldhistory.org/Moses/)'
> 9. The First Legal Precedent
> 10. The First Pharmacopoeia
> 11. The First 'Farmer's Almanac'
> 12. The First Experiment in Shade-Tree Gardening
> 13. Man's First Cosmogony and Cosmology
> 14. The First Moral Ideals
> 15. The First 'Job'
> 16. The First Proverbs and Sayings
> 17. The First Animal Fables
> 18. The First Literary Debates
> 19. The First Biblical Parallels
> 20. The First 'Noah'
> 21. The First Tale of Resurrection
> 22. The First 'St. George'
> 23. The First Case of Literary Borrowing
> 24. Man's First Heroic Age
> 25. The First Love Song
> 26. The First Library Catalogue
> 27. Man's First Golden Age
> 28. The First 'Sick' Society
> 29. The First Liturgic Laments
> 30. The First Messiahs
> 31. The First Long-Distance Champion
> 32. The First Literary Imagery
> 33. The First Sex Symbolism
> 34. The First Mater Dolorosa
> 35. The First Lullaby
> 36. The First Literary Portrait
> 37. The First Elegies
> 38. Labor's First Victory
> 39. The First Aquarium
Archaeological excavations starting in the 1840s have revealed human settlements dating to 10,000 BCE in Mesopotamia, suggesting the fertile conditions of the land between two rivers allowed an ancient hunter-gatherer people to settle in the land, domesticate animals, and turn their attention to agriculture and the development of irrigation. [Trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) soon followed, and with prosperity came [urbanization](https://www.worldhistory.org/urbanization/) and the birth of the city. It is generally thought that writing was invented due to trade, out of the necessity for long-distance communication, and for keeping a more careful track of accounts.
### Learning & [Religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/)
Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning, and it is believed that [Thales of Miletus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thales_of_Miletus/) (circa 585 BCE, known as the First Philosopher) studied there. As the Babylonians believed that water was the "first principle" from which all else flowed, and as [Thales](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thales_of_Miletus/) is famous for that very claim, it seems probable he studied in the region.
Intellectual pursuits were highly valued across Mesopotamia, and the schools seem to have been more numerous than temples and taught reading, writing, religion, [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/), [medicine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/medicine/), and astrology. There were over 1,000 deities in the pantheon of the gods of the Mesopotamian cultures, and many stories concerning the gods, including the creation myth, the *Enuma Elish*. It is generally accepted that biblical tales such as the Fall of Man and the Great Flood (among many others) originated in Mesopotamian lore, as they first appear in Mesopotamian works such as the *[Eridu Genesis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Eridu_Genesis/)*, *The [Myth of Adapa](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/216/the-myth-of-adapa/),* and the *Epic of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/)*, the oldest piece of [literature](https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/) in the world. The Mesopotamians believed that they were co-workers with the gods and that the land was infused with spirits and demons (though demons should not be understood in the modern, Christian sense).
[  Hero Overpowering a Lion Thierry Ollivier (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2570/hero-overpowering-a-lion/ "Hero Overpowering a Lion")The beginning of the world, they believed, was a victory by the gods over the forces of chaos but, even though the gods had won, this did not mean chaos could not come again. Through daily rituals, attention to the deities, proper funeral practices, and simple civic duty, the people of Mesopotamia felt they helped maintain balance in the world and kept the forces of chaos and destruction at bay. Along with expectations that one would honor one's elders and treat people with respect, the citizens of the land were also to honor the gods through the jobs they performed every day.
### Jobs
Men and women both worked, and "because ancient Mesopotamia was fundamentally an agrarian society, the principal occupations were growing crops and raising livestock" (Bertman, 274). Other occupations included those of the scribe, healer, artisan, weaver, potter, shoemaker, fisherman, teacher, and priest or priestess, among many others. Bertman writes:
> At the head of society were the kings and priests served by the populous staff of [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) and [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/). With the institution of standing armies and the spread of imperialism, military officers and professional soldiers took their place in Mesopotamia's expanding and diverse workforce.
> (274)
Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and could own land, file for divorce, own their own businesses, and make contracts in trade. Contracts, business arrangements, and correspondence were written in [cuneiform](https://www.worldhistory.org/cuneiform/) script on clay tablets and signed with an imprint from a person's [cylinder seal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cylinder_Seal/), which was one's form of identification. Once the tablet dried, it was sometimes placed in a clay envelope and sealed so only the recipient, upon breaking the seal, could read the letter or contract. Cuneiform script was used in writing Semitic languages such as Babylonian and others, like Sumerian, and remained in use until replaced by alphabetic script. Receipts for goods received were also written on cuneiform tablets (as everything was, including literature), and these have all lasted much longer than documents written on papyrus or paper.
[  Queen Puabi's Seal Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8105/queen-puabis-seal/ "Queen Puabi's Seal")The earliest beer receipt in the world comes from Mesopotamia, known as the Alulu Receipt (circa 2050 BCE), written in the city of Ur. The early brewers of beer and wine, as well as the healers in the community, were initially women. These trades were later taken over by men, it seems, when it became apparent they were lucrative occupations. The work one did, however, was never considered simply a "job" but one's contribution to the community and, by extension, to the gods' efforts in keeping the world at peace and in harmony.
### Buildings & Government
The temple, at the center of every city (known as a [ziggurat](https://www.worldhistory.org/ziggurat/), a step-[pyramid](https://www.worldhistory.org/pyramid/) structure indigenous to the region), symbolized the importance of the city's patron deity, who would also be worshipped by whatever communities that city presided over. Every city had its own ziggurat (larger [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/), more than one) to honor its patron deity. Mesopotamia gave birth to the world's first cities in history, which were largely built of sun-dried brick. In the words of Bertman:
> The domestic [architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/architecture/) of Mesopotamia grew out of the soil upon which it stood. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia –especially in the south– was barren of stone that could be quarried for construction." The land was equally devoid of trees for timber, so the people "turned to other natural resources that lay abundantly at hand: the muddy clay of its riverbanks and the rushes and reeds that grew in their marshes. With them, the Mesopotamians created the world's first columns, arches, and roofed structures.
> (285)
Simple homes were constructed from bundles of reeds lashed together and inserted in the ground, while more complex homes were built of sun-dried clay brick (a practice followed later by the Egyptians). Cities and temple complexes, with their famous ziggurats, were all built using oven-baked bricks of clay, which were then painted.
The gods were thought to be present in the planning and execution of any building project, and very specific prayers, recited in a set order to the proper deity, were considered of utmost importance in the success of the project and the prosperity of the occupants of the home.
Whichever kingdom or [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) held sway across Mesopotamia, in whatever historical period, the vital role of the gods in the lives of the people remained undiminished. This reverence for the divine characterized the lives of both the field worker and the king. The historian [Helen](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Helen/) Chapin Metz writes:
> The precariousness of existence in southern Mesopotamia led to a highly developed sense of religion. Cult centers such as [Eridu](https://www.worldhistory.org/eridu/), dating back to 5000 BCE, served as important centers of pilgrimage and devotion even before the rise of Sumer. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities emerged in areas surrounding the pre-Sumerian cult centers, thus reinforcing the close relationship between religion and government.
> (2)
The role of the king was established at some point after 3600 BCE, and, unlike the priest-rulers who came before, the king dealt directly with the people and made his will clear through laws of his own devising. Prior to the concept of a king, the priestly rulers are believed to have dictated the law according to religious precepts and received divine messages through signs and omens; the king, while still honoring and placating the gods, was considered a powerful enough representative of those gods to be able to speak their will through his own dictates, using his own voice.
[  Shalmaneser III A.K. (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/741/shalmaneser-iii/ "Shalmaneser III")This is most clearly seen in the famous laws of [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) (reign 1792-1750 BCE), but a ruler claiming direct contact with the gods was quite common throughout Mesopotamian history, most notably in the Akkadian king [Naram-Sin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Naram-Sin/) (reign 2254-2218 BCE), who went so far as to proclaim himself a [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) incarnate. The king was responsible for the welfare of his people, and a good king, who ruled in accordance with divine will, was recognized by the prosperity of the region he reigned over.
Still, even very efficient rulers, such as [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (reign 2334-2279 BCE), had to deal with perpetual uprisings and revolts by factions, or whole regions, contesting his legitimacy. As Mesopotamia was so vast a region, with so many different cultures and ethnicities within its borders, a single ruler attempting to enforce the laws of a central government would invariably be met with resistance from some quarter.
### The History of Mesopotamia
The history of the region, and the development of the civilizations which flourished there, is most easily understood by dividing it into periods:
**Pre-[Pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) [Neolithic Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neolithic/)**
Also known as the [Stone Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stone_Age/) (circa 10,000 BCE, though evidence suggests human habitation much earlier), there is archaeological confirmation of crude settlements and early signs of warfare between tribes, most likely over fertile land for crops and fields for grazing livestock. [Animal husbandry](https://www.worldhistory.org/Animal_Husbandry/) was increasingly practiced during this time, with a shift from a hunter-gatherer culture to an agrarian one. Even so, the historian Marc Van De Mieroop notes:
> There was not a sudden change from hunting-gathering to farming, but rather a slow process during which people increased their reliance on resources they managed directly, but still supplemented their diets by hunting wild animals. Agriculture enabled an increase in continuous settlement by people.
> (12)
As more settlements grew, architectural developments slowly became more sophisticated in the construction of permanent dwellings.
**Pottery [Neolithic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neolithic/) Age** **(circa 7000 BCE)**
In this period, there was a widespread use of tools and clay pots, and a specific culture began to emerge in the Fertile Crescent. Bertman writes, "during this era, the only advanced technology was literally 'cutting edge'" as stone tools and weapons became more sophisticated. Bertman further notes that "the Neolithic [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/) was primarily based on food production through farming and animal husbandry" (55) and was more settled, as opposed to the Stone Age, in which communities were more mobile. Architectural advancements naturally followed in the wake of permanent settlements as did developments in the manufacture of ceramics and stone tools pre-dating the Ubaid period (circa 6500-4000 BCE).
**[Copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/) Age (5900-3200 BCE)**
Also known as the Chalcolithic period, owing to the transition from stone tools and weapons to ones made of copper, this era includes the Ubaid Period (named for Tell al-'Ubaid, the location in Iraq where the greatest number of artifacts were found), during which the first temples in Mesopotamia were built and unwalled villages developed from sporadic settlements of single dwellings. These villages then gave rise to the urbanization process during the [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) period (circa 4000-3100 BCE) when cities rose, most notably in the region of Sumer, including Eridu, Uruk, Ur, Kish, Nuzi, Lagash, [Nippur](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/nippur/), and Ngirsu, and in [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) with its city of [Susa](https://www.worldhistory.org/susa/).
[  Map of the Sumerian Civilization Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15299/map-of-the-sumerian-civilization/ "Map of the Sumerian Civilization")The earliest city is understood today to have been Uruk, although Eridu was considered the first city by the ancient [Sumerians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/). Van De Mieroop writes, "Mesopotamia was the most densely urbanized region in the ancient world" (as cited in Bertman, 201), and the cities that grew up along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as well as those founded further away, established systems of trade which resulted in great prosperity.
This period saw the invention of the wheel (circa 3500 BCE) and writing (circa 3600/3500 BCE), both by the Sumerians, the establishment of kingships to replace priestly rule, and the first war in the world recorded between the kingdoms of Sumer and Elam (2700 BCE), with Sumer as the victor. During the [Early Dynastic](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Early_Dynastic/) period (circa 2900-2350/2334 BCE), all of the advances of the Uruk period were developed, and the cities and government, in general, stabilized.
Increased prosperity in the region gave rise to ornate temples and statuary, sophisticated pottery and figurines, toys for children (including dolls for girls and wheeled carts for boys), and the use of personal seals (known as cylinder seals) to denote ownership of property and to stand for an individual's signature. Cylinder seals would be comparable to one's modern-day identification card or driver's license, and, in fact, the loss or theft of one's seal would have been as significant as modern-day identity theft or losing one's credit cards.
[  Ancient Mesopotamia from Cities to Empires Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16859/ancient-mesopotamia-from-cities-to-empires/ "Ancient Mesopotamia from Cities to Empires")**Early [Bronze Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/) (3000-2119 BCE)**
During this period, [bronze](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/bronze/) supplanted copper as the material from which tools and weapons were made. The rise of the [city-state](https://www.worldhistory.org/Polis/) laid the foundation for economic and political stability, which would eventually lead to the rise of the [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) (2350/2334-2154 BCE) and the rapid growth of the cities of [Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) and [Mari](https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/), two of the most prosperous urban centers of the time. The cultural stability necessary for the creation of art in the region resulted in more intricate designs in architecture and [sculpture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Sculpture/), as well as the following inventions or improvements:
> a number of specific and momentous inventions: the plough and the wheel, the chariot and the sailboat, and the cylinder-seal, the single most distinctive art form of ancient Mesopotamia and a pervasive demonstration of the importance of property ownership and business in the country's daily life.
> (Bertman, 55-56)
The Akkadian Empire of [Sargon the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) was the first multinational realm in the world, and [Sargon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/sargon/)'s daughter, [Enheduanna](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/) (circa 2300 BCE), was the first author of literary works known by name. The library at Mari contained over 20,000 cuneiform tablets (books), and the palace there was considered one of the finest in the region. The Akkadian Empire fell to the [Gutians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/), and Mesopotamia entered the so-called [Gutian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) Period (circa 2141 to circa 2050 BCE).
**Middle Bronze Age (2119-1700 BCE)**
The expansion of the Assyrian kingdoms ([Assur](https://www.worldhistory.org/assur/), [Nimrud](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kalhu/), Sharrukin, Dur, and [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/)) and the rise of the Babylonian dynasty (centered in Babylon and Chaldea) created an atmosphere conducive to trade and, with it, increased warfare. The Gutians, after toppling the Akkadian Empire, dominated the politics of Mesopotamia until they were defeated by the allied forces of the kings of Sumer who ruled during the Ur III Period (circa 2112 to circa 2004 BCE). The Amorites, Elamites, and Gutians ended Sumerian civilization circa 1750 BCE.
Also during the Middle Bronze Age, the [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) king Hammurabi, of Babylon, rose from relative obscurity to conquer the region and reign for 43 years. Among his many accomplishments was his famous code of laws, inscribed on the stele of the gods. Babylon became a leading centre at this time for intellectual pursuit and high accomplishment in arts and letters. This cultural centre was not to last, however, and was sacked and looted by the [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/), who were then succeeded by the Kassites.
[  Map of the Middle Assyrian Empire Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15147/map-of-the-middle-assyrian-empire/ "Map of the Middle Assyrian Empire")**Late Bronze Age (1700-1100 BCE)**
The rise of the [Kassite](https://www.worldhistory.org/kassite/) Dynasty (a tribe that came from the Zagros Mountains in the north and is thought to have originated in modern-day Iran) led to a shift in power and an expansion of culture and learning after the Kassites conquered Babylon. The collapse of the Bronze Age followed the discovery of how to mine ore and make use of iron, a technology which the Kassites and, earlier, the Hittites made singular use of in warfare.
This period also saw the beginning of the decline of Babylonian culture due to the rise in power of the Kassites until they were defeated by the Elamites and driven out. After the Elamites gave way to the Aramaeans, the small Kingdom of [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) began a series of successful campaigns, and the Assyrian Empire was firmly established and prospered under the rule of [Tiglath-Pileser I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiglath_Pileser_I/) (reign 1115-1076 BCE), and, after him, [Ashurnasirpal II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurnasirpal_II/) (reign 884-859 BCE) consolidated the empire further. Most Mesopotamian states were either destroyed or weakened following the [Bronze Age Collapse](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bronze_Age_Collapse/) circa 1250 to circa 1150 BCE, leading to a brief "dark age."
[  Ashurnasirpal II Wall Relief Geni (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2802/ashurnasirpal-ii-wall-relief/ "Ashurnasirpal II Wall Relief")**[Iron Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Iron_Age/) (1000-500 BCE)**
This age saw the rise and expansion of the [Neo-Assyrian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neo-Assyrian_Empire/) under [Tiglath-Pileser III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiglath_Pileser_III/) (reign 745-727 BCE) and that empire's meteoric rise to power and [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) under the rule of great Assyrian kings such as [Sargon II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_II/) (reign 722-705 BCE), [Sennacherib](https://www.worldhistory.org/sennacherib/) (reign 705-681 BCE), [Esarhaddon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Esarhaddon/) (reign 681-669 BCE) and [Ashurbanipal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ashurbanipal/) (reign circa 668-627 BCE, who conquered [Babylonia](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/), Syria, [Israel](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Israel/), and Egypt). The empire suffered a decline as rapid as its rise due to repeated attacks on central cities by Babylonians, [Medes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Medes/), and [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/) in 612 BCE.
The tribes of the Hittites and the [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) consolidated their respective powers during this time, which resulted in the rise of the Neo-[Hittite](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) and Neo-Babylonian Empires. King [Nebuchadnezzar II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nebuchadnezzar_II/) (reign 605/604-562 BCE) of Babylon destroyed [Jerusalem](https://www.worldhistory.org/jerusalem/) (588 BCE) during this period and forced the inhabitants of Israel into the "Babylonian Exile." He was also responsible for extensive construction in Babylon, creating famous buildings such as the [Ishtar Gate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ishtar_Gate/) and the great ziggurat known as the Etemenaanki (associated with the "Tower of [Babel](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/)" from the [Bible](https://www.worldhistory.org/bible/)). The fall of Babylon to [Cyrus II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyrus_the_Great/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) (the Great, reign circa 550-530 BCE) in 539 BCE effectively ended Babylonian culture.
[  Ishtar Gate (Artist's Impression) Mohawk Games (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12913/ishtar-gate-artists-impression/ "Ishtar Gate (Artist's Impression)")**Classical Antiquity (500 BCE to 7th century)**
After [Cyrus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyrus/) II took Babylon, the bulk of Mesopotamia became part of the Persian [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/), and this period saw a rapid cultural shift in the region, including a number of changes, most notably the loss of the knowledge of cuneiform script. The conquest of the Persians by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) in 331 BCE brought Hellenization of the culture and religion, but, even though [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) tried to make Babylon a city of consequence again, its days of glory were now in the past.
After the [death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/), his general [Seleucus I Nicator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucos_I/) (reign 305-281 BCE) took control of the region and founded the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) (312-63 BCE), which ruled until 63 BCE when the land was conquered by the Parthians who were, in turn, dominated by the Sassanians who established the [Sassanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) (224-651). The Sassanians honored the legacies of earlier Mesopotamian civilizations and preserved their contributions.
[  Map of the Parthian Empire in the 2nd Century Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16824/map-of-the-parthian-empire-in-the-2nd-century/ "Map of the Parthian Empire in the 2nd Century")Between the [Parthian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Parthia_(Empire)/) (247 BCE-224 CE) and the Sassanians, the [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/) established itself in the region circa 198 (though [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) had arrived earlier in 116-117 but withdrew). The Romans improved the infrastructure of their colonies significantly through their introduction of better roads and plumbing, and they brought [Roman law](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Law/) to the land. Even so, the region was constantly caught up in the wars various [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) emperors waged, first with the Parthians and then the Sassanians over control of the land and resources.
The ancient culture of the region, preserved by the Sassanians, was devastated by the conquest of Mesopotamia by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century, which resulted in the unification of law, language, religion, and culture under [Islam](https://www.worldhistory.org/islam/). Aspects of the older cultures were retained, but, as Bertman notes, "With the Islamic conquest of 651 CE the history of ancient Mesopotamia ends" (58). Today, the great cities that once rose along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are largely unexcavated mounds or broken bricks on arid plains, and the region of the Fertile Crescent has steadily dwindled into areas resembling wastelands due to human factors (such as overuse of the land through agricultural pursuits or urban development) and climate change.
### Legacy
The legacy of Mesopotamia endures today through many of the most basic aspects of modern life, such as the 60-second minute and the 60-minute hour. Helen Chapin Metz writes,
> Because the well-being of the community depended upon close observation of natural phenomena, scientific or protoscientific activities occupied much of the priests' time. For example, the Sumerians believed that each of the gods was represented by a number. The number sixty, sacred to the god An, was their basic unit of calculation. The minutes of an hour and the notational degrees of a circle were Sumerian concepts. The highly developed agricultural system and the refined irrigation and water-control systems that enabled Sumer to achieve surplus production also led to the growth of large cities.
> (4)
Urbanization, the wheel, writing, astronomy, mathematics, wind power, irrigation, agricultural developments, animal husbandry, and the narratives that would eventually be rewritten as the Hebrew Scriptures and provide the basis for the Christian [Old Testament](https://www.worldhistory.org/Old_Testament/) all came from the land of Mesopotamia.
[  Ruins of Uruk SAC Andy Holmes (RAF) (Open Government License) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21543/ruins-of-uruk/ "Ruins of Uruk")As noted, Kramer lists 39 "firsts" from Mesopotamia in his book *History Begins at Sumer,* and yet, as impressive as those "firsts" are, Mesopotamian contributions to world culture do not end with them. The Mesopotamians influenced the cultures of Egypt and Greece through long-distance trade and cultural diffusion and, through these cultures, impacted the culture of Rome, which set the standard for the development and spread of Western Civilization. Mesopotamia, generally, and Sumer specifically, gave the world some of its most enduring cultural aspects, and, even though the cities and great palaces are long gone, that legacy continued into the modern era.
In the 19th century, archaeologists of varying nationalities arrived in Mesopotamia to excavate for evidence that would corroborate the biblical tales of the Old Testament. At this time, the Bible was considered the oldest book in the world, and the stories found in its pages were thought to be original compositions. The archaeologists who sought physical evidence to support the biblical stories found exactly the opposite once the ancient clay tablets were discovered and it was understood that the marks on them were not simply ornamentation but a form of writing.
These cuneiform tablets were deciphered by scholars, including translator George Smith (1840-1876), in 1872, and this opened up the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia to the modern world. The story of the Great Flood and [Noah's Ark](https://www.worldhistory.org/Noah's_Ark/), the story of the Fall of Man, the concept of a Garden of Eden, even the complaints of Job had all been written centuries before the biblical texts by the Mesopotamians.
[  Flood Tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4821/flood-tablet-of-the-epic-of-gilgamesh/ "Flood Tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh")Once cuneiform could be read, and the ancient world of Mesopotamia revealed to the modern age, it transformed people's understanding of the history of the world and themselves. The discovery of the Sumerian civilization and the stories on the cuneiform tablets encouraged a new freedom of intellectual inquiry into all areas of knowledge. It was now understood that the biblical narratives were not original Hebrew works, the world was obviously older than the church had been claiming, there were civilizations which had risen and fallen long before anyone previously thought, and, if these claims by authorities of church, schools, and institutes of higher learning had been false, perhaps others were as well.
The spirit of inquiry in the late 19th century was already making inroads into challenging the paradigms of accepted thought when Smith deciphered cuneiform, but the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion encouraged this further. In ancient times, Mesopotamia impacted the world through its inventions, innovations, and religious vision; in the modern day, its discovery literally changed the way people understood the whole of history and one's place in the continuing story of human civilization.
#### Editorial Review
This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).
## Bibliography
- [Ancient Babylon: Center of Mesopotamian Civilization | LiveScience](http://www.livescience.com/28701-ancient-babylon-center-of-mesopotamian-civilization.html "Ancient Babylon: Center of Mesopotamian Civilization | LiveScience"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Bertman, S. *Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Oxford University Press, 2005.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0195183649/)
- [Black, J & Green, A. *Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia.* University of Texas Press, 1992.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0292707940/)
- [Black, J. et. al. *The Literature of Ancient Sumer.* Oxford University Press, U.S.A., 2018.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B01K0T86LU/)
- [Bottéro, J. *Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0801868645/)
- [Durant, W. *Our Oriental Heritage.* Simon & Schuster, 1954.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00005WJGO/)
- [Jacobsen,T. *The Treasures of Darkness.* Yale University Press, 1978.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0300022913/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *History Begins at Sumer.* University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0812212762/)
- [Kramer, S. N. *The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.* University of Chicago Press, 1971.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0226452387/)
- [Kriwaczek, P. *Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.* Thomas Dunne Books, 2014.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B00DIKTPXC/)
- [Leick, G. *Mesopotamia: The Invention of the Cities.* Scarecrow Press, 2002.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/8449312752/)
- [Leick, G. *The A to Z of Mesopotamia.* Scarecrow Press, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0810875772/)
- [Mehta-Jones, S. *Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.* Crabtree Publishing Company, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0778720667/)
- [Mesopotamia - The British Museum](http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/ "Mesopotamia - The British Museum"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Mesopotamia](http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mesopotamia/mesopotamia.html "Mesopotamia"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC \[Blackwell History of the Ancient..* Blackwell Publishing, 2006.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1405149116/)
- [Van De Mieroop, M. *A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/111871816X/)
- [Von Soden, W. *The Ancient Orient.* Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0802801420/)
- [Wallis Budge, E. A. *Babylonian Life and History.* Barnes & Noble Press, 2005.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0880298553/)
- [Wise Bauer, S. *The History of the Ancient World.* W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/039305974X/)
## About the Author
Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)
## Timeline
- **c. 11700 BCE**: End of the most recent glacial episode within the current Quaternary [Ice Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ice_Age/).
- **10000 BCE**: Beginnings of [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) in the Middle East.
- **9000 BCE**: Cultivation of wild cereals in the [Fertile Crescent](https://www.worldhistory.org/Fertile_Crescent/).
- **8000 BCE**: Ovens in use in the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/) are applied to [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/) production.
- **c. 6500 BCE - 4000 BCE**: The Ubaid period in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **c. 6000 BCE**: [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/) is first settled.
- **c. 5400 BCE**: The [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Eridu](https://www.worldhistory.org/eridu/) is founded.
- **c. 5000 BCE**: [Godin Tepe](https://www.worldhistory.org/Godin_Tepe/) settled.
- **5000 BCE**: Irrigation and [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) begin in earnest in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 5000 BCE - c. 4500 BCE**: The [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) founded.
- **c. 4500 BCE**: The [Sumerians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) built their first [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/).
- **c. 4000 BCE**: First settlement of [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **4000 BCE - 3100 BCE**: [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) period in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). First [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/).
- **c. 4000 BCE - c. 1750 BCE**: [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/) in the Tigris-Euphrates valley.
- **c. 3600 BCE**: Invention of [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/) at [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/).
- **3400 BCE**: Priests become the rulers of Mesopotamian [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/).
- **c. 3000 BCE - c. 2900 BCE**: [Mari](https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/), the earliest known planned [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/), is built near the eastern bank of the Euphrates.
- **c. 2900 BCE - c. 2334 BCE**: The [Early Dynastic](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Early_Dynastic/) period in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **2500 BCE**: First Dynasty of Lagash under King Eannutum is first [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 2400 BCE**: Earliest [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) sources to mention migrating Amorites in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **2350 BCE**: First code of laws by Urukagina, king of Lagash.
- **2334 BCE - 2279 BCE**: [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) (the Great) reigns over [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) and creates the world's first [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/).
- **2334 BCE - 2154 BCE**: The [Akkadian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/akkad/) rules [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **c. 2330 BCE**: [Sargon of Akkad](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_of_Akkad/) sacks [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **c. 2154 BCE - c. 2112 BCE**: The Dark Age of [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 2141 BCE - c. 2050 BCE**: The [Gutian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gutians/) period in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **c. 2119 BCE - c. 2112 BCE**: Reign of Utu-Hegal at [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **c. 2112 BCE - 2094 BCE**: [Ur-Nammu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ur-Nammu/)'s reign over [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **c. 2112 BCE - c. 2004 BCE**: The [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/) III period in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/), known as the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) Renaissance.
- **2100 BCE**: Ziggurats in use in [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Eridu](https://www.worldhistory.org/eridu/), [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/), [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/), [Nippur](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/nippur/) and elsewhere.
- **c. 2100 BCE - c. 2050 BCE**: The [Code of Ur-Nammu](https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Ur-Nammu/) (the oldest extant code of laws) is written.
- **c. 2100 BCE - c. 1400 BCE**: The tales of [Gilgamesh](https://www.worldhistory.org/gilgamesh/) written which inform the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- **2047 BCE - 1750 BCE**: Third Dynasty of [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **c. 2038 BCE**: King [Shulgi of Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shulgi_of_Ur/) builds his great [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) in [Sumer](https://www.worldhistory.org/sumer/).
- **2000 BCE**: Domesticated horses introduced in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 2000 BCE - 1600 BCE**: [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) period in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **c. 1900 BCE**: [Ashur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ashur/), future capital of the Assyrian [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/), is founded.
- **c. 1900 BCE - c. 1400 BCE**: [Trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) flourishes between [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) and other regions.
- **1894 BCE**: [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) dynasty established in [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **1795 BCE - 1750 BCE**: Reign of [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/), king of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **c. 1792 BCE**: King [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) builds walls of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **1787 BCE**: [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) conquers [Uruk](https://www.worldhistory.org/uruk/) and Isin.
- **c. 1772 BCE**: The [Code of Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Code_of_Hammurabi/): One of the earliest codes of [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) in the world.
- **c. 1760 BCE - c. 1757 BCE**: [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) destroys the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Mari](https://www.worldhistory.org/mari/). The people of Mari are spared according to Hammurabi.
- **1755 BCE**: [Hammurabi](https://www.worldhistory.org/hammurabi/) rules the whole of [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) from [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **1750 BCE**: [Elamite](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) invasion and [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) migration ends the [Sumerian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sumerians/) [civilization](https://www.worldhistory.org/civilization/).
- **c. 1750 BCE**: [Elam](https://www.worldhistory.org/elam/) conquers [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **1680 BCE**: [Hurrians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hurrians/) occupy [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/).
- **1595 BCE**: King Mursilis of the [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) sacks [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/). Begin of Babylonian "dark ages."
- **1595 BCE**: [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) under Mursilli I sack [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/), ending [Amorite](https://www.worldhistory.org/amorite/) rule.
- **1550 BCE**: The Hurrian kingdom of [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) is founded.
- **c. 1500 BCE**: Rise of the kingdom of [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/).
- **1500 BCE**: [Egyptian empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Empire/) extends to the Euphrates.
- **1472 BCE**: [Mittani](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) annexes [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/).
- **1400 BCE**: [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/) regains its independence.
- **c. 1350 BCE**: Peak of [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) power, it is considered a great nation.
- **1350 BCE - 1250 BCE**: The [Hittite](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) is at its peak.
- **c. 1344 BCE - 1322 BCE**: King [Suppiluliuma I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Suppiluliuma_I/) of the [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) sacks the [Mitanni](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) capital Washukanni and installs Artatama II as vassal king.
- **c. 1321 BCE**: Western [Mittani](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mitanni/) is conquered by the [Hittites](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/).
- **1285 BCE**: Peak of [Hittite](https://www.worldhistory.org/hittite/) power.
- **1244 BCE - 1208 BCE**: Reign of [Tukulti-Ninurta I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tukulti-Ninurta_I/), King of [Assyria](https://www.worldhistory.org/assyria/).
- **1220 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is under Assyrian control.
- **1080 BCE**: Aramaeans invade [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **1000 BCE**: Chaldeans occupy [Ur](https://www.worldhistory.org/ur/).
- **853 BCE**: Babylonian kings depend on Assyrian military support.
- **734 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is captured by Chaldeans.
- **729 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is occupied by Assyrians.
- **722 BCE - 705 BCE**: Peak of the Assyrian [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) under the reign of [Sargon II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sargon_II/).
- **612 BCE**: Downfall of the Assyrian [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/).
- **605 BCE - 562 BCE**: [Nebuchadnezzar II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nebuchadnezzar_II/) is king of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **539 BCE**: Fall of [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/), conquered by [Cyrus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyrus/) of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/). Return of the Jews.
- **500 BCE - 330 BCE**: The [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/) rules in [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/), Persian Royal Road in use.
- **485 BCE**: [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) is destroyed by [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/), King of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **323 BCE - 31 BCE**: The [Hellenistic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenic_World/) Age. [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) thought and [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) infuses with indigenous people.
- **312 BCE**: [Seleucos](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Seleucos/) conquers [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) and founds the [Seleucid](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) dynasty.
- **c. 312 BCE - 63 BCE**: Duration of the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/).
- **129 BCE**: Parthians [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/). The [Silk Road](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silk_Road/) to [China](https://www.worldhistory.org/china/) is now controlled by the Parthians.
- **58 BCE - 57 BCE**: [Ctesiphon](https://www.worldhistory.org/ctesiphon/) becomes Parthian capital during the reign of Orodes II.
- **115 CE - 117 CE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) occupies [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **224 CE**: Sasanians overthrow the Parthians.
- **234 CE**: Emperor [Maximinus Thrax](https://www.worldhistory.org/Maximinus_Thrax/) is governor of [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **651 CE**: Muslim [Conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
## Questions & Answers
### What is Mesopotamia today?
Mesopotamia today is the countries of Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, and part of Turkey.
### What does "Mesopotamia" mean?
"Mesopotamia" is a Greek term meaning "between two rivers," referring to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
### What is Mesopotamia famous for?
Mesopotamia is famously referred to as the "cradle of civilization" because of the many cultural innovations and inventions that began there, including writing, the wheel, the city, irrigation, the sail, and many others.
### Is Mesopotamia the oldest civilization in the world?
Mesopotamia is among the oldest civilizations in the world, along with the Indus Valley Civilization and ancient Egypt.
## External Links
- [Iraq Heritage](http://iraqheritage.org/timeline.php)
- [Hammurabi's Code of Laws](http://ed.ted.com/on/LY8CVQZm)
- [Mesopotamia: The First Civilization](https://www.missedinhistory.com/podcasts/mesopotamia-the-first-civilization.htm)
- [episode 2: Before the Flood](http://literatureandhistory.com/index.php/episode-002-before-the-flood)
- [The Newly Discovered Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh](http://etc.ancient.eu/exhibitions/giglamesh-enkidu-humbaba-cedar-forest-newest-discovered-tablet-v-epic/)
- [Sumerian Language Page](http://www.sumerian.org/)
- [The British Museum](http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/)
- [The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago](http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/computer-laboratory/archaeological-site-photography-mesopotamia)
- [Map, History of Ancient Akkadian, Civilization](https://www.mapsofworld.com/world-ancient-history/akkad.html)
- [Brief History of Assyrians](http://www.aina.org/brief.html)
- [Climate change fueled the rise and demise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, superpower of the ancient world](https://theconversation.com/climate-change-fueled-the-rise-and-demise-of-the-neo-assyrian-empire-superpower-of-the-ancient-world-126661)
- [List of Rulers of Mesopotamia | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/meru/hd_meru.htm)
## Cite This Work
### APA
Mark, J. J. (2026, February 18). Mesopotamia: The Beginning of Beginnings. *World History Encyclopedia*.
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Mesopotamia: The Beginning of Beginnings." *World History Encyclopedia*, February 18, 2026. .
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Mesopotamia: The Beginning of Beginnings." *World History Encyclopedia*, 18 Feb 2026, .
## License & Copyright
Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 18 February 2026. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.