---
title: John Adams
author: Harrison W. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2024-08-23
---

# John Adams

_Authored by [Harrison W. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/harrisonwmark/)_

John Adams (1735-1826) was an American lawyer, statesman, and diplomat who was a prominent leader of the [American Revolution](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Revolution/) (1765-1789) before going on to serve as the first vice president (1789-1797) and second president of the United States (1797-1801). He is considered a Founding Father of the United States, having helped lead the push for independence.

### Early Life

John Adams was born on 30 October 1735 in Braintree, Massachusetts. His father, John Adams Sr., was a farmer, shoemaker, church deacon, and selectman for the town of Braintree, who was well-liked in his 2,000-person community. The younger John greatly admired his father, later [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/) of him that "in wisdom, piety, benevolence, and charity…I have never known his superior" (McCullough, 33). John's mother, Susanna Boylston Adams, came from one of the most prominent medical families in New [England](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/england/); her uncle Zabdiel Boylston was the first American physician to perform smallpox inoculations. John had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu, and spent his childhood "making and sailing boats…swimming, skating, flying kites and shooting marbles…running about to quiltings and frolics and dances among boys and girls". As Adams would later recall, his childhood "went off like a fairytale" (McCullough, 31).

In 1751, at the age of 16, John Adams enrolled in Harvard College with the encouragement of his father, who had hoped that his son would become a minister. Yet, Adams realized he was better suited for a career in [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/). After graduating from Harvard in 1755, he took a job as a schoolteacher in Worcester, Massachusetts, to sustain himself while he studied law under James Putnam, one of the most prominent lawyers in Worcester. He was admitted to the bar on 6 November 1759 and began practicing law in Braintree and Boston. He lost his first case on a technicality, which temporarily shook his self-confidence, but he continued to dedicate himself to the study of law. By 1762, his practice had taken off, and he was soon riding the circuit of Massachusetts courts with the royal judges.

In 1759, Adams was introduced to 15-year-old Abigail Smith, a shy, delicate-looking girl who had been frequently ill in her childhood. At first, Adams took little interest in Abigail, writing that she and her sisters were neither "fond, nor frank, nor candid" (McCullough, 52). But the pair became closer in the following years, bonding over their shared love of books. In 1761, upon the [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of his father, Adams inherited nine acres of land and a farmhouse in Braintree; he and Abigail lived there after their marriage on 25 October 1764. The couple would ultimately have four children who survived childhood: Abigail ‘Nabby' Adams (1765-1813), [John Quincy Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Quincy_Adams/) (1767-1848), Charles Adams (1770-1800), and Thomas Boylston Adams (1772-1832). Another daughter, Susanna (b. 1768) died before her second birthday while the couple's final child, Elizabeth, was stillborn in 1777.

[ ![Abigail Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/19353.jpg?v=1766284205-1724233654) Abigail Adams Benjamin Blyth (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19353/abigail-adams/ "Abigail Adams")### Revolutionary Lawyer

In 1765, word reached Boston that Parliament planned to impose the [Stamp Act](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stamp_Act/) on the [Thirteen Colonies](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thirteen_Colonies/), which would place a tax on all paper documents. Adams' second cousin, [Samuel Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/Samuel_Adams/), became an outspoken critic of the policy, arguing that Parliament's attempts to directly tax the Americans without their consent were tantamount to tributary slavery; the phrase ‘no taxation without representation' became a rallying cry for the Whig, or Patriot, movement, which opposed the tax. John Adams, too, publicly opposed the Stamp Act; though he was initially less famous than his outspoken cousin, he penned several essays for the *Boston Gazette* in which he argued that the rights and liberties of Americans were firmly entrenched in British constitutional law and could not be disregarded. Around the same time, he authored the *Braintree Instructions*, a letter sent to the Massachusetts General Court on behalf of the residents of Braintree, in which Adams proclaimed that "no freeman should be the subject to any tax to which he has not given his own consent" (McCullough, 61). Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766, and tensions subsided in Boston – until the following year when Parliament imposed another series of direct taxes in the [Townshend Acts](https://www.worldhistory.org/Townshend_Acts/).

In 1768, the Liberty, a sloop owned by wealthy Boston merchant [John Hancock](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Hancock/), was seized by British customs officials, on the pretext that it carried smuggled goods. Adams, who had risen to become one of Boston's most prominent lawyers, successfully defended Hancock in court, though he disapproved of the anti-British riots triggered by the Liberty Affair. These riots prompted Parliament to send soldiers to Boston to restore order, a move that only increased tensions in the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/). On 5 March 1770, nine British soldiers fired into a mob of colonists, killing five. The soldiers, under the command of Captain Thomas Preston, were swiftly arrested. While the [Boston Massacre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boston_Massacre/) was met with furious outrage throughout the colonies, Adams agreed to defend the soldiers at trial; although he was an opponent of Parliament's policies, he believed that everyone was entitled to a fair trial.

[ ![Portrait of John Adams, c. 1766](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/18121.jpg?v=1723005011-1699440554) Portrait of John Adams, c. 1766 Benjamin Blyth (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18121/portrait-of-john-adams-c-1766/ "Portrait of John Adams, c. 1766")He first defended Captain Preston in a week-long trial that began on 24 October 1770. Preston was acquitted after Adams convinced the jury that there was insufficient evidence that he had commanded the men to fire. In December, Adams defended the other eight soldiers, claiming that they had come under attack by the mob, which had begun pelting them with snowballs and chunks of ice and had been calling for their deaths. To remove the blame from his fellow Bostonians, Adams argued that the mob had been made up of "molattoes, Irish Teagues, and Jack Tars (i.e. sailors)", all of which were considered outsiders (Zabin, 216). "Facts are stubborn things," Adams concluded, "and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictums of our passions, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence" (McCullough, 68). After a two-hour deliberation, six soldiers were acquitted, while two were found guilty of manslaughter, given the relatively light sentence of having their thumbs branded. It was Adams' greatest success as a lawyer.

### Continental Congress

After the Boston Massacre, relations between Great [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/) and the colonies continued to deteriorate. In response to the [Boston Tea Party](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boston_Tea_Party/) (16 December 1773), Parliament passed the so-called [Intolerable Acts](https://www.worldhistory.org/Intolerable_Acts/), closing the port of Boston to commerce and suspending representative government in Massachusetts. In September 1774, Adams attended the [First Continental Congress](https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Continental_Congress/) in Philadelphia, which condemned the Intolerable Acts and petitioned the king for their repeal. After the first shots of the [American Revolutionary War](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Revolutionary_War/) were fired at the [Battles of Lexington and Concord](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2341/battles-of-lexington-and-concord/) (19 April 1775), Adams once again went to Philadelphia, this time as a delegate to the [Second Continental Congress](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Continental_Congress/), the wartime government of the rebelling colonies.

Adams quickly stood out as a leader in the Continental Congress. It was he who nominated [George Washington](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_Washington/) to command the newly formed Continental Army on 14 June 1775 – much to the chagrin of Hancock, who had wanted the job for himself. By early 1776, as the [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) continued to escalate, Adams realized that reconciliation with Great Britain was no longer possible and became a leading advocate for independence. Together with his cousin [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) and ally [Richard Henry Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Richard_Henry_Lee/) of Virginia, he spearheaded the push for independence within Congress and drafted the preamble to the Lee Resolution, which proposed a formal separation between the colonies and Britain. As the congressional delegates prepared to vote on the resolution, Adams put together a Committee of Five – himself, [Benjamin Franklin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Benjamin_Franklin/), [Thomas Jefferson](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thomas_Jefferson/), Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston – to draft a [Declaration of Independence](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2411/declaration-of-independence/) in case the vote carried. On 2 July 1776, Congress voted in favor of independence, and the Declaration was adopted two days later.

[ ![Writing the Declaration of Independence](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/18469.png?v=1772406005-1707732862) Writing the Declaration of Independence Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18469/writing-the-declaration-of-independence/ "Writing the Declaration of Independence")During his two years in Congress, Adams sat on 90 committees and chaired 25 of them. As the head of the Board of War, he closely worked with officers of the Continental Army and oversaw the creation of the Continental Navy; often working 18-hour days, he was referred to as a one-man war department. He drafted the Plan of Treaties in July 1776, which laid the groundwork for a treaty of alliance with France and, following Washington's defeat at the [Battle of Long Island](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2359/battle-of-long-island/) (27 August 1776), was selected as one of the three commissioners to discuss peace with British Admiral Lord Richard Howe. The resultant Staten Island Peace Conference quickly broke down as the Americans would not retract independence. On 27 November 1777, Adams agreed to serve as a commissioner to France and was sent to [Paris](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/paris/) to aid Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee in negotiating an alliance.

### Diplomat

On 12 February 1778, Adams sailed for Paris aboard the frigate *Boston*, accompanied by his ten-year-old son John Quincy. He arrived in Paris in April, only to learn that a Treaty of Alliance had already been concluded. Adams was not impressed with his fellow commissioners – he viewed Arthur Lee as a paranoid cynic who saw spies everywhere, while Franklin was a tired old man much too eager to please the French. He continued to serve in France until September 1778, when Congress appointed Franklin as the sole plenipotentiary to the Court of Versailles. Congress' instructions neglected to mention Adams, leaving him feeling frustrated and underappreciated. He decided to return to Braintree, arriving on 2 August 1779.

Adams remained in Massachusetts long enough to help draft the state's constitution, which soon became the model for other states. In November 1779, he was sent back to [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/), charged with negotiating peace and a treaty of commerce with Britain. During the voyage, his ship sprung a leak and had to make port in Ferrol, Spain; rather than wait for the ship to be repaired, Adams travelled overland by mule, crossing the Pyrenees and arriving in Paris in January 1780. He spent the next six months at the French court, gradually realizing that France was losing faith in the American alliance and may be less forthcoming with future aid. To reduce the United States' reliance on French aid, Adams took it upon himself to travel to Amsterdam, to try and drum up support from the Dutch Republic.

Such was not to be an easy task – the Dutch were fearful of provoking British wrath by recognizing the United States. Adams spent the next year lobbying for support, publishing a 16-page memorial in April 1781 in which he made an impassioned plea for a Dutch alliance. He fell dangerously ill with a disease that may have been malaria or typhus, but he soon recovered. In November 1781, word reached Amsterdam of Washington's victory at the [Siege of Yorktown](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2532/siege-of-yorktown/) (28 September to 19 October 1781); Adams capitalized on the momentum to demand the Dutch answer his memorial. The Hague recognized the independence of the United States in April 1782, allowing Adam to secure a loan of 5 million guilders from Dutch bankers. "If this had been the only action of my life," he wrote to Abigail, "it would have been well spent" (McCullough, 272). But he was not yet finished. In October 1782, he returned to Paris to join Franklin, John Jay, and [Henry Laurens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Henry_Laurens/) in negotiating peace with Britain. The resultant [Treaty of Paris of 1783](https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Paris_of_1783/) was quite favorable to the United States and ended the war after eight years of fighting.

[ ![Treaty of Paris, Unfinished Portrait](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/18591.jpg?v=1774979770-1709713544) Treaty of Paris, Unfinished Portrait Benjamin West (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18591/treaty-of-paris-unfinished-portrait/ "Treaty of Paris, Unfinished Portrait")In 1785, Adams was sent to London as the first American ambassador to Great Britain. On 1 June, he had his first audience with King [George III of Great Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_III_of_Great_Britain/) (r. 1760-1820), during which he expressed his hope to restore goodwill between people who, "though separated by an ocean and under different governments, have the same language, a similar [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), and kindred blood" (McCullough, 336). The king, for his part, answered that despite being the last to consent to separation, he would now be "the first to meet the friendship of the United States" (*ibid*). Adams remained in London for the next three years. He was joined by Abigail and was often visited by Thomas Jefferson, serving as ambassador to France. During this period, Adams and Jefferson formed a close friendship. By the late 1780s, Adams had become disturbed by troubling news from home – [Shays' Rebellion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Shays'_Rebellion/) (1786-87) had erupted in Massachusetts, while the nation was experiencing a crisis over the weak [Articles of Confederation](https://www.worldhistory.org/Articles_of_Confederation/). In 1788, he resigned his ambassadorship and set sail for home.

### Vice Presidency

Adams returned to Massachusetts in June 1788, around the time that the new United States Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states. Shortly thereafter, George Washington was unanimously elected the first president of the United States; since Washington was from Virginia, it was deemed appropriate that a Northerner serve as his vice president, leading to Adams' election. He arrived in New York City on 21 April 1789, little knowing what his new duties would entail; indeed, the only role of the vice president explicitly stated in the Constitution was to preside over the Senate and cast a tie-breaking vote there, if necessary.

[ ![John Adams as Vice President](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/19352.jpg?v=1771726215-1724233581) John Adams as Vice President John Trumbull (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19352/john-adams-as-vice-president/ "John Adams as Vice President")Adams found himself supporting most of the official policies of the Washington Administration, although he rarely attended cabinet meetings and was not often consulted for advice; Adams himself would later refer to the vice presidency as "the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived" (Britannica). He was, however, a strong supporter of the burgeoning Federalist Party, centered around the leadership of [Alexander Hamilton](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_Hamilton/); the Federalists believed in a strong central government. When Washington declined to stand for a third term in 1796, Adams stood for office as a Federalist. He won the presidency by a margin of 71-68 electoral votes; according to the protocol of the day, the runner-up, Jefferson, became vice president.

### Presidency

Adams was sworn into office on 4 March 1797. To ensure a smooth transition, Adams decided to retain most of Washington's cabinet; many scholars consider this a mistake, as the cabinet was more loyal to Hamilton than to Adams. Much of his presidency was influenced by the ongoing [French Revolutionary Wars](https://www.worldhistory.org/French_Revolutionary_Wars/). Adams and the Federalists hoped to continue the Washington Administration's policy of neutrality, while the rival Democratic-Republican Party (headed by Vice President Jefferson) wanted to support Revolutionary France against Britain. With Franco-American relations rapidly deteriorating, Adams sent a commission to Paris in July 1797 only to find that the French were demanding bribes as a prerequisite to negotiations (the [XYZ Affair](https://www.worldhistory.org/XYZ_Affair/)). Insulted, Adams recalled the commission and began a naval program.

[ ![Political Cartoon Depicting the XYZ Affair](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/19354.jpg?v=1759932248-1724232256) Political Cartoon Depicting the XYZ Affair S.W. Fores (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19354/political-cartoon-depicting-the-xyz-affair/ "Political Cartoon Depicting the XYZ Affair")Rising tensions with France led Adams to pass the [Alien and Sedition Acts](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts/) in 1798, widely considered one of the low points of his career. The acts allowed the president to arrest or deport non-citizens residing in the US, as well as indict newspaper editors who published material considered to be "false, scandalous, and malicious" about the federal government. This outraged and disgusted the Democratic-Republicans, with Jefferson condemning the acts as unconstitutional. In May 1798, a French privateer seized an American merchant ship, sparking an undeclared naval conflict called the [Quasi-War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Quasi-War/) (1798-1800). The conflict, which ended shortly after [Napoleon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Napoleon/)'s rise to power, negated the 1778 Treaty of Alliance between the two nations. The peace agreement, made in 1800, caused a rift among the Federalists, as the Hamiltonian wing of the party still viewed Revolutionary France as a threat.

In June 1800, Adams moved the seat of government to Washington, D.C., the new federal city built on the Potomac River. By this point, Adams was running for re-election, once again pitted against Jefferson. Tensions were running high between the political parties, and the candidates were reduced to lobbing personal insults at one another; the once close friendship between Adams and Jefferson was destroyed, not to be mended for over a decade. But the rift within the Federalist Party, and the political maneuvering of [Aaron Burr](https://www.worldhistory.org/Aaron_Burr/), cost Adams the victory. In his final weeks before leaving office, Adams made several appointments to the judiciary, including naming [John Marshall](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Marshall/) as Chief Justice of the United States. These so-called ‘midnight judges', mostly Federalists, assured that the Democratic-Republicans would not have total control over the federal government. Adams left office on 4 March 1801 after a single term and retired to his farm in Quincy, Massachusetts (Braintree had become a municipality of Quincy in 1792).

### Later Years

After leaving Washington, D.C., Adams largely refrained from commenting on public affairs, believing it was not his place to criticize the sitting administration. He celebrated when John Quincy was elected to the Senate in 1803 and supported his son when he broke with the Federalist Party in 1808. Adams became more vocal after Jefferson left the presidency, voicing his support for the [War of 1812](https://www.worldhistory.org/War_of_1812/) against Britain. In 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson, and the pair took up a spirited correspondence, sending 158 letters over the next decade. In August 1813, tragedy struck when Adams' oldest daughter, Nabby, died after a three-year [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) with breast cancer. Five years later, Abigail Adams died of typhoid fever.

[ ![John Adams, 1826](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/19355.jpg?v=1723734427-1724231974) John Adams, 1826 Gilbert Stuart (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19355/john-adams-1826/ "John Adams, 1826")Adams lived long enough to see John Quincy elected to the presidency after the exciting, four-way presidential election of 1824. Although Adams celebrated his son's victory, he told those who came to wish congratulations that, "no man who ever held the office of president would congratulate a friend on obtaining it" (McCullough, 639). On 4 July 1826, the 50th anniversary of independence, John Adams died in his home in Quincy as a thunderstorm raged outside. He was 90 years old. Jefferson had died the same day, only [hours](https://www.worldhistory.org/Horae/) before, and both their deaths were mourned by the nation they had helped forge.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Boatner, Mark M. *Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence.* London: Cassell, 1973., 1973.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0304292966/)
- [Chernow, Ron. *Alexander Hamilton.* Penguin Books, 2005.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0143034758/)
- [John Adams - Encyclopedia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Adams-president-of-United-States "John Adams - Encyclopedia Britannica"), accessed 15 Aug 2024.
- [McCullough, David. *John Adams.* Simon & Schuster, 2002.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0743223136/)
- [Middlekauff, Robert. *The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789.* Oxford University Press, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/019531588X/)
- [Wood, Gordon S. *Empire of Liberty.* Oxford University Press, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199832463/)
- [Zabin, Serena. *The Boston Massacre: A Family History.* Mariner Books, 2020.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0544911156/)

## About the Author

Harrison Mark is a historical researcher and writer for World History Encyclopedia. He holds degrees in history and political science from SUNY Oswego.
- [Facebook Profile](https://www.facebook.com/harrison.mark.5/)
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/in/harrison-mark-b56213197/)

## Timeline

- **30 Oct 1735 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/), future President of the United States, is born in Braintree, Massachusetts.
- **6 Nov 1759 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) is admitted to the bar in Boston, begins practicing [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/).
- **25 Oct 1764 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) marries Abigail Smith.
- **25 Sep 1765 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) drafts the 'Braintree Instructions' in opposition to the [Stamp Act](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stamp_Act/).
- **27 Nov 1770 CE - 4 Dec 1770 CE**: Trial of the eight British soldiers who participated in the [Boston Massacre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Boston_Massacre/). Defended by [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/), six soldiers are acquitted and two found guilty of manslaughter.
- **14 Jun 1775 CE**: Jonn Adams nominates [George Washington](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_Washington/) as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
- **2 Jul 1776 CE**: The Continental Congress votes for independence; the United States is born.
- **11 Sep 1776 CE**: The Staten Island Peace Conference breaks down after the Americans refuse to renounce independence.
- **Apr 1778 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) arrives in [Paris](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/paris/) to join Arthur Lee and [Benjamin Franklin](https://www.worldhistory.org/Benjamin_Franklin/) as diplomats to the Court of Versailles.
- **30 Oct 1779 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) drafts the Massachusetts state constitution.
- **19 Apr 1782 CE**: The Dutch Republic recognizes the independence of the United States, after months of lobbying by [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/).
- **30 Nov 1782 CE**: The first draft of the [Treaty of Paris](https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Paris_of_1783/) is finished.
- **1 Jun 1785 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) has his first audience with King [George III of Great Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_III_of_Great_Britain/), after being appointed ambassador to Great [Britain](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Britain/).
- **4 Feb 1789 CE**: In the first US presidential election, [George Washington](https://www.worldhistory.org/George_Washington/) wins all 69 electoral votes; [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) is elected vice president.
- **21 Apr 1789 CE**: Adams arrives in New York [City](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) to take his office as the first Vice President of the United States.
- **4 Nov 1796 CE - 7 Dec 1796 CE**: The Election of 1796 is held in the United States; [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) is elected president, with [Thomas Jefferson](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thomas_Jefferson/) as his vice president.
- **4 Mar 1797 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) is inaugurated as the second President of the United States.
- **Oct 1797 CE - Apr 1798 CE**: The [XYZ Affair](https://www.worldhistory.org/XYZ_Affair/); French diplomats demand bribes from American commissioners as a prerequisite for negotiations, increasing tensions between France and the US.
- **18 Jun 1798 CE - 14 Jul 1798 CE**: President Adams and the Federalist-controlled Congress enact the controversial [Alien and Sedition Acts](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts/).
- **7 Jul 1798 CE - 30 Sep 1800 CE**: The [Quasi-War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Quasi-War/), an undeclared naval conflict, is fought between Revolutionary France and the United States.
- **Jun 1800 CE**: The seat of the federal government in the United States moves to Washington, D.C.
- **31 Jan 1801 CE**: President [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) appoints [John Marshall](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Marshall/) as chief justice of the US Supreme Court; the appointment is soon confirmed by the Senate.
- **Feb 1801 CE**: After losing re-election, Adams makes a series of last-minute judicial appointments known as the 'midnight judges'.
- **4 Mar 1801 CE**: Adams' term as president expires, he retires to Quincy, Massachusetts.
- **28 Oct 1818 CE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of Abigail Smith Adams, age 73.
- **4 Jul 1826 CE**: [John Adams](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/) dies at home in Quincy, Massachusetts, at the age of 90.

## Questions & Answers

### Who was John Adams?
John Adams was a Founding Father of the United States. He was one of the earliest advocates for independence in the American Revolution and helped draft the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war. He served as the first vice president and second president of the US.

### What happened during John Adams' presidency?
John Adams' presidency saw the rise of political factionalism in the US (between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans) as well as tensions with Revolutionary France, that erupted into the Quasi-War. Adams' presidency has been criticized for the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. 

### Why did John Adams defend the soldiers who committed the Boston Massacre?
John Adams defended the soldiers who committed the Boston Massacre because he believed everyone was entitled to a fair trial. 

### When did John Adams serve as president?
John Adams was the president of the United States for a single, four-year term, from March 4 1797 until 4 March 1801. 


## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, H. W. (2024, August 21). John Adams. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/John\_Adams/](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/)
### Chicago
Mark, Harrison W.. "John Adams." *World History Encyclopedia*, August 21, 2024. [https://www.worldhistory.org/John\_Adams/](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/).
### MLA
Mark, Harrison W.. "John Adams." *World History Encyclopedia*, 21 Aug 2024, [https://www.worldhistory.org/John\_Adams/](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Adams/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Harrison W. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/harrisonwmark/ "User Page: Harrison W. Mark"), published on 21 August 2024. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.