--- title: Ghana Empire author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 2025-04-16 --- # Ghana Empire _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ The [Ghana](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ghana/) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) flourished in West [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) from at least the 6th to 13th century. Not connected geographically to the modern state of Ghana, the Ghana Empire was located in the western Sudan savannah region (modern southern Mauritania and Mali) sandwiched between the Sahara desert to the north and the rainforests to the south. [Trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) in the Ghana Empire was facilitated by the abundance of iron, [copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/), [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/), and ivory and easy access to the Niger and Senegal Rivers and their tributaries. The Ghana kings, residing in the capital at Koumbi Saleh, grew immensely rich, building up stockpiles of the gold nuggets only they were permitted to possess. Consequently, the reputation of Ghana spread to North Africa and [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/), where it was described as a fabulous land of gold. The Ghana Empire crumbled from the 12th century following drought, civil wars, the opening up of trade routes elsewhere, and the rise of the Sosso Kingdom (c. 1180-1235) and then the [Mali Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mali_Empire/) (1240-1645). ### West Africa & the Sudan Region The Sudan region of West Africa (not to be confused with the modern state of that name), where the Ghana Empire would develop, had been inhabited since the [Neolithic period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Neolithic/) as is evidenced by [Iron Age](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Iron_Age/) tumuli, megaliths and remains of abandoned villages. The Niger River regularly flooded parts of this dry grassland and savannah, which provided fertile land for [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) beginning at least 3,500 years ago, an endeavour greatly helped by the region's adequate annual rainfall. Cereals such as red-skinned African rice and millet were grown with success, as were pulses, tuber and root crops, oil and fibre plants, and fruits. Fishing and the herding of cattle and goats were other important sources of food. Local deposits of copper were exploited and used for trade, while metalworking in the region, as indicated by archaeological finds, dates back to at least the 6th century. There have been many finds, too, of fine [pottery](https://www.worldhistory.org/pottery/), some of which was traded across the region, as indicated by chemical analysis of the clay. Similarly, gold was probably locally mined or panned and then traded along the numerous waterways of the region, but concrete evidence from this early period is lacking. Indeed, the whole history of the region and the Ghana Empire before the 11th century remains vague due to a lack of written sources and the rather meagre results of [archaeology](https://www.worldhistory.org/Archaeology/). However, the latter has increased dramatically in the 21st century, and both the antiquity and extent of West African trade, in particular, are now considered to have been greater than previously thought. ### Foundation The precise foundation of the Ghana Empire, or the Kingdom of Ghana as it is sometimes referred to, is not known. It may date to as early as the 6th century but evidence of some sort of political apparatus is not seen until later. The period when the empire was at its height is considered to be between the 9th and 11th century. The name Ghana most probably derives from a local title meaning king. [ ![Trans-Saharan Trade Routes](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/10148.png?v=1777831749) Trans-Saharan Trade Routes Aa77zz (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10148/trans-saharan-trade-routes/ "Trans-Saharan Trade Routes")The Ghana Empire was mostly composed of the Soninke (aka Sarakole) people, who spoke Mande (aka Mandingo) and who occupied the area of savannah between the Niger River (to the southeast) and Senegal River (to the southwest). These rivers and the Sahara desert to the north formed a natural triangle of flat grasslands that the Ghana Empire would occupy (today's southern portions of Mauritania and Mali). The region dominated by the Soninke is often referred to as Wagadu in indigenous oral traditions or as Wangara, the Muslim geographers' term for the Middle Niger. ### Koumbi Saleh The capital of the Ghana Empire was most likely Koumbi Saleh (in the absence of any other viable candidates). Also known simply as Ghana, it is located 322 km (200 miles) north of modern Bamako, Mali. The capital was much larger than previously thought - the medieval Arab descriptions of a population of 40-50,000 now looking conservative after recent excavations, which show the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) spread over an area of 110 acres (45 hectares) with many other smaller settlements immediately surrounding it. Excavations have also revealed a significant mosque, a large public square, and parts of a circuit [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) and monumental gateway. Housing was typically of one storey and made with mud-dried bricks, pounded earth and wood or stone, all used in the region since prehistory and still in use today. The Arab traveller Al-Bakri, visiting near the end of the empire's history in 1076, describes the capital as being surrounded by wells and with irrigated fields where many vegetables grew. He goes on to state: > The king has a [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) and a number of domed dwellings all surrounded with an enclosure like a city wall…Around the king's town are domed buildings and groves and thickets where the sorcerers of these people, men in charge of the religious cult, live. In them are their idols and the tombs of their kings. > (quoted in Fage, 668) ### King & Government Really a conglomerate of villages ruled by a single king, the empire prospered thanks to a well-trained army which had cavalry units and access to raw materials such as iron ore to make its weapons and gold deposits to pay its soldiers. It is perhaps significant that blacksmiths and forgers have long enjoyed an elevated status in the Sudan region. Possession of camels with their utility as transport of goods and people was another factor in the superiority of the Soninke over their rivals. With these advantages, the Ghana Empire acquired new territories and new tribute from subjugated tribal chiefs, and they could monopolise first local and then regional trade. [ ![Trans-Saharan Camel Caravan](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/10150.jpg?v=1777831752) Trans-Saharan Camel Caravan Holger Reineccius (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10150/trans-saharan-camel-caravan/ "Trans-Saharan Camel Caravan")The Ghana king was an absolute monarch and the state's head of justice and [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/). There was a certain cultivated mystique about the ruler, partly due to his role as leader of the animist religion amongst his people. Sacrifices and libations were made in his honour, there were strict rules of etiquette in his presence and, when he died, his [tomb](https://www.worldhistory.org/tomb/) was laid in a sacred grove which no person could enter. The traveller Al-Bakri described the Ghana king in the following terms: > The king adorns himself like a woman, wearing necklaces and bracelets, and when he sits before the people he puts on a high cap decorated with gold and wrapped in turbans of fine cotton…Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the vassal kings of his country wearing splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. > (quoted in Krieger, 322) The king did rely on advisors and, from the 11th century, even recruited Muslim merchants to act as interpreters and as officials who helped manage the [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/) and keep track of the goods coming in and out of the country. ### West African Trade The Ghana Empire dominated central West African trade in the upper valley of the Niger River from the 6th or 7th century. Control of regional trade was a lucrative business for the kings of Ghana who passed on goods like gold, ivory, hides, ostrich feathers, and slaves to the Muslim merchants (particularly the Sanhaja [Berbers](https://www.worldhistory.org/Berbers/)) who sent camel caravans that crossed the Sahara from North Africa and which brought much-valued salt to the south. Goods were often taxed twice, once when they came into the country and again when they left it. In addition to income from passing trade, the Ghana Empire had access to its own resources, notably iron ore and gold from the fields of Bambuk, which the elite used to exchange for such luxury goods as fine textiles, beads, copper, and horses, which were all brought by Arab traders from the north. Another commodity-currency used in Ghana, besides gold, was copper wiring. The kings of Ghana once again illustrated their supreme position by prohibiting anyone else but themselves from owning gold nuggets; merchants had to be satisfied with gold dust. The policy had the added advantage of ensuring the king could control the gold market and ensure its value did not decrease by having too much of it in circulation at any one time. [ ![The Ghana Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1104.png?v=1767913325) The Ghana Empire Luxo (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1104/the-ghana-empire/ "The Ghana Empire")### Muslim Influence [Islam](https://www.worldhistory.org/islam/) was spread throughout the region by Muslim merchants as they came into contact with local traders and the elite of urban areas. Leaders may have recognised that adopting the religion (or seeming to), or at the least tolerating it would be beneficial to trade. Indeed, in the Ghana Empire, there is no evidence that kings themselves converted to Islam. On the contrary, Ghana's capital at Koumbi Saleh was divided into two distinct towns from the mid-11th century. One town was Muslim and boasted 12 mosques while the other, just 10 km away and joined by many intermediate buildings, was the royal residence with many traditional cult shrines and one mosque for visiting merchants. This division reflected the continuance of indigenous animist beliefs alongside Islam, the former being practised by rural communities. ### Decline The first stage in the decline of the Ghana Empire began in the mid-11th century. C. 1076 the capital was sacked by the Almoravids of North Africa (c. 1055 - c. 1147), perhaps in retaliation for the Ghana rulers' attempt to muscle in on trade by Saharan commercial centres. The Ghana Empire struggled to recover thereafter; Muslim rulers may have been imposed by the Almoravids but concrete evidence is lacking for any sort of [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/). Meanwhile, towns like Awdaghost (est. 1055) were lost to the Ghana kings and so permitted [Berber](https://www.worldhistory.org/Berbers/) merchants to directly control more of the region's trade. The Ghana Empire really began to collapse in the 12th century. The decline set in when other competing trade routes opened up further east and when the climate became unusually dry for a prolonged period, which affected agricultural production. The rulers of Ghana did not help themselves either as the empire was beset by a string of civil wars, the divisions perhaps based on the inherent conflict between Muslim and animist beliefs. Meanwhile, many rebellious chiefs took the opportunity of a weak central government to declare themselves independent of the empire, notably Tekrur in the Western Sudan region which controlled the Senegal River and which had even allied itself with the Almoravids. The kingdom of Sosso (aka, Susu, c. 1180-1235) was the biggest inheritor of the crumbling Ghana Empire, aided by the collapse of the Almoravids in the mid-12th century. However, the Sosso would be a short-lived kingdom as their king Sumanguru (aka Sumaoro Kante, r. from c. 1200) was defeated by [Sundiata Keita](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sundiata_Keita/) in 1235. Sundiata also seized the old Ghana capital in 1240, and he would go on to found the Mali Empire (1240-1645), the largest and richest empire yet seen in Africa. #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - [Anonymous. *Chambers Dictionary of World History.* Larousse Kingfisher Chambers, 2000.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0550130004/) - Chu, D. and Elliott Skinner. "A Glorious Age in Africa, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: The Story of Three Great African Empires,." *Africa Today*, Vol. 60, No. 1 (Fall 2013), pp. 130-134. - [Curtin, P. *African History.* Pearson, 1995.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0582050707/) - [de Villiers, M. *Timbuktu.* Walker Books, 2007.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0802714978/) - [Desmond Clark, J. (ed). *The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 1.* Cambridge University Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/052122215X/) - [Fage, J.D. (ed). *The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2.* Cambridge University Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521215927/) - [Hrbek, I. (ed). *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. III, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press, 1992.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520066987/) - [Ki-Zerbo, J. (ed). *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520066995/) - [McEvedy, C. *The Penguin Atlas of African History.* Penguin Books, 1996.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0140513213/) - [Mokhtar, G. (ed). *UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition.* University of California Press, 1990.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0520066979/) - [Oliver, R. (ed). *The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 3.* Cambridge University Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521209811/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **c. 500 CE - 1240 CE**: The [Ghana Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/) dominates West [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **1076 CE**: The Arab traveller Al-Bakri visits the [Ghana Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/) in West [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). - **c. 1076 CE**: Koumbi Saleh, the capital of the [Ghana Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/), is sacked by the Almoravids of North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/). ## External Links - [The Story of Africa](http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml) - [Gold For Salt: What Is Currency?](http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/currency/essay2.html) - [The Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana Empire | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ghan/hd_ghan.htm) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2019, March 05). Ghana Empire. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Ghana Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, March 05, 2019. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Ghana Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, 05 Mar 2019, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ghana_Empire/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 05 March 2019. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). 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