---
title: Euripides
author: Mark Cartwright
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2024-05-07
---
# Euripides
_Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_
Euripides (c. 484-407 BCE) was one of the greatest authors of [Greek tragedy](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Tragedy/). In 5th century BCE [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) his classic works such as *Medeia* cemented his reputation for clever dialogues, fine choral lyrics and a gritty realism in both his text and stage presentations. The writer of some 90 plays, Euripides was also famous for posing awkward questions, unsettling his audience with a thought-provoking treatment of common themes, and spicing up the story with thoroughly immoral characters. This is probably why Euripides won only a few festival competitions compared to his great tragedian rivals [Aeschylus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Aeschylus/) and [Sophocles](https://www.worldhistory.org/sophocles/), although he was tremendously popular with the public. The popularity of Euripides' work has never diminished and his plays continue to be performed in theatres today.
### Euripides' Life
Born in Athens c. 484 BCE to a well-to-do family, Euripides was the youngest of the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/)'s other great tragedy playwrights; Aeschylus and Sophocles. In his youth, Euripides also performed as an actor but as his voice was not strong enough to carry to the back of a typical 14,000-seat [Greek theatre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Theatre/), he concentrated on his role as a playwright. In ancient [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) tragedy, this meant also being producer and director of the play.
A Greek tragedy was typically performed at important religious festivals such as the City Dionysia where three playwrights each wrote three tragic plays and a [satyr](https://www.worldhistory.org/satyr/) play to compete for a prize. Tragedy plays were restricted by certain conventions:
- The theme was mythological with elements of [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/) and family affairs.
- A maximum of three actors could have speaking roles (although they could play multiple characters).
- A chorus consisted of 12 or 15 singers.
- All actors were males wearing masks.
Nevertheless, despite these restrictions, Euripides managed to appeal through the presentation of universal themes of relevance to his audience, themes such as justice versus revenge, the rule of [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) against the will of the gods, and the struggle between reason and passion. The characters in Greek tragedy were usually society's elite and the story often dealt with matters of state, however, Euripides gave prominent roles to intelligent female characters and included significant parts for more ordinary citizens in his works. This is reflected in a comment attributed to him by [Aristophanes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Aristophanes/) in his comedy play *Frogs*: *"*I made tragedy more democratic". Euripides also removed the previously prominent roles of Greek gods and generally restricted their appearance to only the beginning or end of his plays.
Tradition holds that Euripides was something of an unpopular recluse who shunned laughter and wrote his plays in a cave near [Salamis](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Salamis/) surrounded by his extensive library. The reality, though, was that audiences loved his innovative productions and controversial themes. Euripides was credited with being on an intellectual par with philosophers and his characters are given great rhetorical skills (sometimes even in sung speeches, previously the exclusive role of the chorus) and plots are made both intricate and unpredictable. Familiar myths are treated with unconventional twists and altered chronologies to freshen the tales and ensure the audience was gripped by the story.
In competitions, Euripides was not particularly successful. Indeed, his very first competition trilogy, performed in 455 BCE, came in third and last place. Of his 90 plays, only four won first prize, compared to a 50% win rate for Aeschylus and Sophocles. On the other hand, perhaps a more telling statistic is the fact that the Athenians funded his productions over 90 times and so clearly thought his work of merit regardless of their final position at the end of the festival.
Euripides spent his final years at the court of [Archelaus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Archelaus/), the king of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/). The great playwright died there in c. 407 BCE but not before he wrote the now lost play *Archelaos* which dealt with the mythical founding of the royal dynasty. Several of Euripides' plays were presented posthumously, including the *[Bacchae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bacchae/)*. The fact that the celebrated comedy playwright Aristophanes constantly made references to Euripides (and therefore expected his audience to be familiar with his work) illustrates his fame when he was alive. Further, the selection of several of his plays for study material as part of a rounded Greek education meant that Euripides' tragedies lived on for centuries. Their continued study in academia and regular performances in the modern world have only perpetuated the long tradition of Greek tragedy and the name of one of its greatest protagonists.
[  Greek Tragedy Mask Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3706/greek-tragedy-mask/ "Greek Tragedy Mask")### Euripides' Works
Of around 90 plays only 18 complete tragedies and one satyr-play survive, the latter being a genre of bawdy comedy which covered stories from [Greek mythology](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Mythology/) and which had a chorus of satyrs, the followers of the [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) of wine and revelry [Dionysos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Dionysos/). Another play, the *Rhesus*, is disputed by scholars as being written by him. Several fragments, some substantial, survive from 9 other plays. Without doubt the most famous play is *Medeia*, while critics most esteem his *Bacchae*. Most often the tragic element of the plays derives from the suffering of the main character and their inability, no matter what they try, to improve their situation. In the words of [Aristotle](https://www.worldhistory.org/aristotle/): "Euripides is the most intensely tragic of all the poets." (*Poetics*, ch. 14).
- ***[Alcestis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alcestis/)*** (438 BCE) - where Alcestis sacrifices herself to save her husband but is ultimately saved by [Hercules](https://www.worldhistory.org/hercules/) from the supernatural figure of [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/).
- ***Medeia*** (431 BCE) - where Jason, of the [Golden Fleece](https://www.worldhistory.org/Golden_Fleece/) fame, abandons the title character for the daughter of the King of [Corinth](https://www.worldhistory.org/corinth/) with the consequence that Medeia kills her own children in revenge.
- ***The Children of Hercules*** (aka *Heraclidae*, c. 430 BCE) - with the eternal conflict between power and justice as its central theme.
- ***[Hippolytus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hippolytus/)*** (428 BCE) - where holding one's principles leads to destruction for [Phaedra](https://www.worldhistory.org/Phaedra/) and Hippolytus.
- ***[Andromache](https://www.worldhistory.org/Andromache/)*** (c. 425 BCE) - where, after the [Trojan War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Trojan_War/) and now a slave, Andromache battles with Hermione, the wife of her master.
- ***Hecuba*** (c. 423 BCE) - where the Queen of [Troy](https://www.worldhistory.org/troy/) seeks revenge for the death of her son Polydorus.
- ***[Suppliants](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Suppliants/)*** (c. 423 BCE) - where the mothers of the [Seven Against Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seven_Against_Thebes/) appeal to Athens so that the Thebans will allow the proper [burial](https://www.worldhistory.org/burial/) of their sons.
- ***Hercules*** (c. 417 BCE) - dealing with the madness which drove Hercules to kill his wife and children.
- ***[Electra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/electra/)*** (c. 417 or 414 BCE) - where Electra and Orestes conspire to destroy their mother.
- ***Trojan [Women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/)*** (415 BCE) - with Hecuba again the key character amid a catalogue of Trojan misery.
- ***Ion*** (412 or 410 BCE) - which examines the discrepancies between religious faith and the human condition.
- ***Iphigenia among the Taurians*** (c. 412 BCE) - where Iphigenia and Orestes [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) the gods and Fate with a surprisingly happy ending.
- ***[Helen](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Helen/)*** (412 BCE) - which describes the reconciliation of Helen and [Menelaus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Menelaus/).
- ***[Cyclops](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyclops/)*** (412 or 408 BCE) - a satyr play describing [Odysseus](https://www.worldhistory.org/odysseus/)' encounter with the Cyclops on his long return journey to Ithaca following the Trojan [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/). It is the only complete surviving satyr play from Greek [theatre](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/theatre/).
- ***Phoenician Women*** (aka *Phoenissae*, 409 BCE) - where a group of innocent women travelling to [Delphi](https://www.worldhistory.org/delphi/) are trapped in [Thebes](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thebes/).
- ***Orestes*** (c. 408 BCE) - where Orestes kills his own mother and tries, without success, to take revenge on his aunt Helen.
- ***[Iphigenia in Aulis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Iphigenia_in_Aulis/)*** (after 406 BCE and produced posthumously) - where [Agamemnon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agamemnon/) must sacrifice Iphigenia for the good of the Greek expedition against Troy.
- ***Bacchae*** (after 406 BCE) - in which there is a running conflict between Pentheus, king of Thebes, and a demonic Dionysos.
Incomplete plays, often only fragments of which survive: *Telephus*, *Cretans*, *Cresphontes*, *Erechtheus*, *Phaethon*, *[Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)*, *[Oedipus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Oedipus_the_King/)*, *Hypsipyle*, and *Archelaus*.
### Quotes
Below is a selection of extracts from Euripides' works:
> O [Zeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/zeus/), what am I to say? Do you watch over men or are we fools, blind fools to believe this, and is it chance that oversees all man's endeavours? *Hecabe* 488-91
> We're fools in love - it's plain enough - clinging to this glitter here on earth because we don't know any other life and haven't seen what lies below. *Hippolytus* 189-96
> My friends, I have decided to act at once. I will kill the children and then quit this land. I will not delay and so deliver them to other hands to spill their blood more eagerly. They must be killed; there is no other way. And since they must, I will take their life, I who gave them life. Come, my heart, put on your armour! *[Medea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Medea/)* 1240-42
> As for being a king, it is overrated. Royalty conceals a life of torment behind a pleasant facade. To live in hourly fear, looking over your shoulder for the assassin - is that paradise? Is it even good fortune? Give me the happiness of a plain man, not the life of a king, who loves to fill his court with criminals, and hates honest men for fear of death. *Ion* 613-18
> So here in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) I have lived, while my poor husband gathered an army and in pursuit of his stolen wife has sailed to the fortress of Troy. Many souls of men perished for my sake by the river Scamander; and I, the centre of these tragic events, am named with curses, as the betrayer of my husband, who brought upon [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) the pestilence of war. *Helen* 49-54
> Blest is the man who cheats the stormy sea
> And safely moors beside the sheltering quay;
> So, blest is he who triumphs over trial.
> One man, by various means, in wealth or strength
> Outdoes his neighbour; hope in a thousand hearts
> Colours a thousand different dreams; at length
> Some find a dear fulfilment, some denial.
> But this I say,
> That he who best
> Enjoys each passing day
> Is truly blest.
> *Bacchae* 902-12
> [Eros](https://www.worldhistory.org/Eros/), if too violent, does not bring good reputation
> to men, nor virtue. If [Aphrodite](https://www.worldhistory.org/Aphrodite/) comes with moderation,
> she is a divine, incommensurable gift.
> O Goddess, please do not shoot me with the arrow of desire,
> the inescapable arrow from your golden bow.
> *Medea* 627-33
#### Editorial Review
This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).
## Bibliography
- [Boys-Stone, G. *The Oxford Handbook of Hellenic Studies.* Oxford University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199286140/)
- [Euripides. *Medea and Other Plays.* Penguin Classics, 1963.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0140441298/)
- [Euripides. *Three Plays/ Hippolytus / Iphigenia in Taurus.* Penguin Classics, 1974.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0140440313/)
- [Hornblower, S. *The Oxford Classical Dictionary.* Oxford University Press, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199545561/)
- [Kinzl, K.H. *A Companion to the Classical Greek World.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0631230149/)
## About the Author
Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share.
## Timeline
- **c. 484 BCE - 407 BCE**: Life of [Greek tragedy](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Tragedy/) poet [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/).
- **438 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Alcestis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alcestis/)' is first performed.
- **431 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Medeia' is first performed.
- **c. 430 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Heraclidae' is first performed.
- **428 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Hippolytus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hippolytus/)' is first performed.
- **c. 425 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Andromache](https://www.worldhistory.org/Andromache/)' is first performed.
- **c. 423 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Hecuba' is first performed.
- **c. 423 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Suppliants](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Suppliants/)' is first performed.
- **c. 417 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Hercules](https://www.worldhistory.org/hercules/)' is first performed.
- **c. 416 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Electra](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/electra/)' is first performed.
- **415 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Trojan [Women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/)' is first performed.
- **412 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy '[Helen](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Helen/)' is first performed.
- **c. 412 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Iphigenia among the Taurians' is first performed.
- **c. 412 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' [satyr](https://www.worldhistory.org/satyr/) play [Cyclops](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Cyclops/) is first performed.
- **c. 410 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Ion' is first performed.
- **409 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Phoenissae' is first performed.
- **c. 408 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedy 'Orestes' is first performed.
- **408 BCE - 406 BCE**: [Euripides](https://www.worldhistory.org/Euripides/)' tragedies '[Bacchae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bacchae/)', 'Iphigenia at Aulis' are first performed.
## Cite This Work
### APA
Cartwright, M. (2015, April 17). Euripides. *World History Encyclopedia*.
### Chicago
Cartwright, Mark. "Euripides." *World History Encyclopedia*, April 17, 2015. .
### MLA
Cartwright, Mark. "Euripides." *World History Encyclopedia*, 17 Apr 2015, .
## License & Copyright
Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 17 April 2015. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.