--- title: Byzantine Government author: Mark Cartwright source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Government/ format: machine-readable-alternate license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) updated: 1970-01-01 --- # Byzantine Government _Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_ The government of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) was headed and dominated by the emperor, but there were many other important officials who assisted in operating the finances, judiciary, military, and bureaucracy of a huge territory. Without elections, the ministers, senators, and councillors who governed the people largely acquired their position through imperial patronage or because of their status as large landowners. Government was multi-levelled based on the geographical division of the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/)'s population and although corruption, rebellions, and invasions threatened the functioning of the system, and even caused its reduction in scale, the system nevertheless survived for centuries to become one of the most sophisticated apparatus of government seen in any empire in history. ### The Emperor The [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) (and sometimes empress) ruled as an absolute monarch and was the commander-in-chief of the army and head of the Church and government. He controlled the state finances, and he appointed or dismissed nobles at will, granting them wealth and lands or taking them away. The position was conventionally hereditary, but new dynasties were regularly founded as usurpers took the throne, usually military generals backed by the army. Unlike in the west, the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) emperor was also head of the Church and so could appoint or dismiss the most important ecclesiastical role in the empire, the Patriarch or bishop of [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/). Further, the emperor was widely regarded as having been chosen by [God](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) to rule for the good of the people. The emperor was distinguished by his magnificent royal residence, the [Great Palace of Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1211/the-great-palace-of-constantinople/), and by his imperial regalia - the jewelled crown, belt, cloak, and brooch seen in so many depictions in [Byzantine art](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Art/). His or her image was widely seen as it appeared on [coinage](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/), official seals, weights, mosaics, and [sculpture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Sculpture/). Given the size of the empire and the complexity of all the different facets of government necessary for it to run smoothly, the emperor was, by necessity, obliged to consult with a team of close advisors. Such members of an inner circle at court, the *comitatus*, need not have held any formal position, but there were other permanent offices and positions which helped disseminate the imperial will to all corners of the empire. There were, in addition, the court eunuch chamberlains (*cubicularii*) who served the emperor in various personal duties but who could also control access to him. Eunuchs also held positions of responsibility themselves, chief amongst these being the holder of the emperor's purse, the *sakellarios* whose powers would increase significantly from the 7th century CE. ### The Senate & Imperial Ministers The main forum of government was the Senate of Constantinople, which was made up of aristocratic males who were given their position by the emperor. Created by [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) (r. 306-337 CE), it was modelled on the [Roman Senate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Senate/). Although in practice the emperor could make any decision he wished, at least in theory he was supposed to consult the Senate and particularly the smaller group of the most senior senators known as the *sacrum consistorium*. This was especially so for matters of state importance - declarations of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/), treaties of alliance, and so on. The Senate, therefore, was really only an advisory body. It could, though, function as the highest court in the land in rare cases of high treason. [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/) (r. 886-912 CE) reduced the role of the Senate even further, but it would remain as an institution until the fall of the empire in the mid-15th century CE. [ ![Emperor Justinian & His Court](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/4504.jpg?v=1774532646) Emperor Justinian & His Court Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4504/emperor-justinian--his-court/ "Emperor Justinian & His Court")Key ministers who reported to the emperor but had some autonomy of authority included the following: - the *[quaestor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Quaestor/) sacri palatii* or chief legal officer and head of the judiciary - the *magister officiorum* who looked after the general administration of the [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/), the army and its supplies, the secret police, transport, and foreign affairs - the *cursus publicus who supervised the public post - the *comes sacrarum largitionum* who controlled the state mint (*Sakellion*) and supervised customs houses, the state workshops and armouries, and the state's [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) and [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/) mines. He collected some specific taxes, paid out extraordinary bonuses to the army, and supervised the distribution of clothing to the court. - the *comes rei privatae* who looked after the imperial estates and the emperor's personal wealth - the *praepositus sacri cubiculi* or chief eunuch who typically controlled who could have a personal audience with the emperor - the Urban Prefect or Eparch who was, essentially, the mayor of Constantinople and had to run the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/), manage its prisons, ensure public order was maintained, supervise building projects, and organise public spectacles. The emperor and the above officials were supported by various ministries and their heads (*domestikoi*) such as the head of orphanages (*orphanotrophos*) and the head of public records (*protasekretis*), as well as countless minor officials (*logothetes*) and archivists (*chartoularioi*). ### Regional Government The Byzantine Empire was divided into the following territorial and administrative units: - Prefectures (4) - Dioceses (12) - Provinces (100+) - Town Councils There were four prefectures, each governed by a Praetorian Prefect. The most important was the Praetorian of the East (the others governed [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/), [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) and Illyricum) and, like his colleagues, he was responsible for all administrative, fiscal, and judicial affairs in his area. Prefects supervised and maintained the public post, roads, bridges, post-houses, and granaries in their area. The prefectures were further divided into dioceses with their respective governors (*vicarii*) and each of these into administrative provinces, each with its own governor who supervised the individual city councils or *curiae*. [Cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) which were the seat of a governor such as [Ephesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/ephesos/), [Sardis](https://www.worldhistory.org/sardis/) and Aphrodisias, flourished as the governors sought to leave lasting monuments in their city and support the [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) there. This was usually to the detriment of smaller towns in the province, and there are even records of emperors admonishing governors for dismantling monuments and stealing the stones in lesser towns in order to beautify the provincial capital. Members of a *curia* were usually the wealthier local citizens, the land-owning elite (*archontes*), and although there were no elections, the ordinary people could voice their opinions at public events by acclaiming or booing public figures, just as factions of the crowd at the [Hippodrome of Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1158/the-hippodrome-of-constantinople/) sometimes did towards the emperor. Public opinion might not bring the dismissal of councillors or other government officials but it could affect their chances of promotion as the emperor and central government were always on the watch for signs of public unrest in the provinces. Riots did occasionally break out, and the damage and economic disruption they caused was best avoided. Local councillors were responsible for all public services and the collection of taxes in their town and its surrounding lands (curiously, any shortfall had to be made up by the councillors themselves until that onerous obligation was abolished in the early 6th century CE). This was a deliberate policy by emperors to separate tax revenue from anyone holding positions of military power and, therefore, reduce the possibility that a usurper could fund that portion of the army he commanded against the state. The main tax was a land tax called the annona,* which was calculated in consideration of a census (*indictio*) taken every 5, and then later, 15 years. Local councils also had to help with national services such as providing horses for the empire's postal system. The local councils could directly petition the emperor so that there was both a direct and indirect chain of authority through which imperial policy was transmitted to the ordinary people. Leo VI abolished the councils in the 9th century CE, and their duties were redistributed to other officials. Finally, to ensure that government policy was carried through in practice, there was a whole army of imperial inspectors who were regularly dispatched to the provinces. In the 7th century CE, as the empire shrank significantly and what remained became increasingly threatened by its neighbours. Emperor [Heraclius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclius/) (r. 610-641 CE), or his immediate successors, permanently changed the system of central government so that governors of the newly created large provinces or *themes* (*themata*) were now, in effect, provincial military commanders (*strategoi*) with civil responsibilities who were directly responsible to and reported to the emperor himself. The system of Praetorian Prefects was, therefore, abolished, and the *logothetes*, those minor officials looked down upon previously, became more instrumental in the successful running of the government and civil administration. [ ![Byzantine Empire, 717 CE](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/7593.png?v=1643755502) Byzantine Empire, 717 CE Hoodinski (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/7593/byzantine-empire-717-ce/ "Byzantine Empire, 717 CE")Thus the whole bureaucracy was simplified and the number of officials massively reduced with the most important *logothetes* being: - the *logothetes tou stratiotikou* who was in charge of military affairs from spending to armaments and supplies - the *logothetes tou genikou* who was in charge of the land tax amongst many others - the *logothetes tou dromou* who was in charge of foreign affairs, internal security, the public post, protection of the emperor, roads, and official public ceremonies. In the 8th century CE, when armies of certain *themes* and strategoi posed a threat to the emperor's position, the *themes* were reorganised into smaller regional units to reduce their military power. By the 11th century CE, the *theme* system went into decline as emperors like [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) (r. 976-1025 CE) preferred to rely on the greater loyalty of their own private army. The *strategoi* were gradually replaced by other officials with less overall powers such as the doux or *katepano* (military governor) and *praitor (responsible for fiscal and judicial matters). #### Editorial Review This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/). ## Bibliography - Bagnall, R.S. *The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2012 - [Gregory, T.E. *A History of Byzantium.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/140518471X/) - [Herrin, J. *Byzantium.* Princeton University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0691143692/) - [Mango, C. *The Oxford History of Byzantium.* Oxford University Press, 2002.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0198140983/) - [Norwich, J.J. *A Short History of Byzantium.* Vintage, 1998.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0679772693/) - [Rosser, J. H. *Historical Dictionary of Byzantium.* Scarecrow Press, 2001.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0810839792/) - [Shepard, J. *The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492.* Cambridge University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521832314/) ## About the Author Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. ## Timeline - **306 CE - 337 CE**: Reign of [Roman Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/). - **395 CE - 408 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Arkadios. - **408 CE - 450 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Thedosius II. - **450 CE - 457 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Marcian. - **457 CE**: [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/) is crowned by the Patriarch of [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/), the first [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) to be crowned by a bishop. - **457 CE - 474 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/). - **474 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leo II. - **491 CE - 518 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/). - **518 CE - 527 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Justin I. - **527 CE - 565 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/). - **565 CE - 578 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Justin II. - **578 CE - 582 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Tiberius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius/) II. - **582 CE - 602 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Maurice. - **602 CE - 610 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Phocas. - **610 CE - 641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Heraclius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclius/). - **641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) III. - **641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Heraklonas. - **668 CE - 685 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine IV](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_IV/). - **685 CE - 695 CE**: First reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/). - **695 CE - 698 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leontios. - **698 CE - 705 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Tiberios II. - **705 CE - 711 CE**: Second reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/). - **711 CE - 713 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Philippikos. - **713 CE - 716 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Anastasius II - **716 CE - 717 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Theodosius III. - **717 CE - 741 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/). - **720 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/) makes his son [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) co-emperor. - **741 CE - 775 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) - **775 CE - 780 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leo IV. - **780 CE - 790 CE**: [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) rules as regent for [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/). - **780 CE - 797 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/) (with [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) as regent 780-790 CE). - **790 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/) exiles his mother and regent [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/). - **797 CE - 802 CE**: [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) rules the [Byzantine empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/). - **802 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) is exiled to [Lesbos](https://www.worldhistory.org/lesbos/). - **802 CE - 811 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Nikephoros I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_I/). - **811 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Stavrakios. - **811 CE - 813 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael I. - **813 CE - 820 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo V the Armenian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_V_the_Armenian/). - **820 CE - 829 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_II/). - **829 CE - 842 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Theophilos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theophilos/). - **842 CE - 867 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/). - **866 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) makes Basil the Macedonian co-emperor. - **867 CE**: Basil the Macedonian murders [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) and declares himself Emperor [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/). - **867 CE - 886 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/). - **869 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/) crowns his son [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) co-emperor. - **870 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/) crowns his son Leo co-emperor (future [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/)). - **912 CE - 913 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/). - **920 CE - 944 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Romanos I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romanos_I/) Lekapenos. - **945 CE - 959 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VII/) (ruled with a regent from 912 CE). - **959 CE - 963 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanos II. - **1025 CE - 1028 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) VIII. - **1028 CE - 1034 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanos III Argyros. - **1034 CE - 1041 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael IV the Paphalgonian. - **1041 CE - 1042 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael V. - **1042 CE - 1055 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) IX. - **Apr 1042 CE - Jun 1042 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) empresses Zoe and Theodora. - **1055 CE - 1056 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Empress Theodora](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Theodora/) (alone). - **1056 CE - 1057 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VI. - **1057 CE - 1059 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Isaac I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Isaac_I_Komnenos/). - **1059 CE - 1067 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) X. - **1067 CE - 1071 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanus IV Diogenes. - **1071 CE - 1078 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VII. - **1078 CE - 1081 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Nikephoros III. - **Apr 1081 CE - Aug 1118 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/). - **1118 CE - 1143 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/). - **1143 CE - 1180 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Manuel I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Manuel_I_Komnenos/). - **1180 CE - 1183 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios II. - **1183 CE - 1185 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos I. - **1185 CE - 1195 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Isaac II. - **1195 CE - 1203 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios III. - **1203 CE - 1204 CE**: Joint reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) emperors Isaac II and Alexios IV. - **1204 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios IV. - **1204 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Alexios V. - **1259 CE - 1282 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VIII. - **1282 CE - 1328 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos I. - **1293 CE - 1320 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael IX. - **1328 CE - 1341 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos III. - **1341 CE - 1354 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VI. - **1341 CE - 1376 CE**: First reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John V. - **1376 CE - 1379 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos IV. - **1379 CE - 1391 CE**: Second reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John V. - **1390 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VII. - **1391 CE - 1425 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Manuel II. - **1425 CE - 1448 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VIII. - **1449 CE - 1453 CE**: Reign of the last [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) XI. ## External Links - [List of Rulers of the Roman Empire | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roru/hd_roru.htm) ## Cite This Work ### APA Cartwright, M. (2018, April 13). Byzantine Government. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Government/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Government/) ### Chicago Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Government." *World History Encyclopedia*, April 13, 2018. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Government/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Government/). ### MLA Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Government." *World History Encyclopedia*, 13 Apr 2018, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Government/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Government/). ## License & Copyright Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 13 April 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.