---
title: Byzantine Empire
author: Mark Cartwright
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2025-11-27
---

# Byzantine Empire

_Authored by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/)_

The [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) existed from 330 to 1453. It is often called the Eastern [Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/) or simply [Byzantium](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantium/). The Byzantine capital was founded at [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) by [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) (r. 306-337). The Byzantine Empire varied in size over the centuries, at one time or another, possessing territories located in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/), [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), the Balkans, [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/), [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/), and North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).

Byzantium was a Christian state with [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) as the official language. The Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art, and [architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/architecture/). These were all significantly influenced by the Greco-[Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) cultural tradition but were also distinct and not merely a continuation of ancient [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/). The Byzantine Empire was the longest-lasting medieval power, and its influence continues today, especially in the [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), art, architecture, and laws of many Western states, Eastern and Central [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/), and Russia.

### The Name 'Byzantine' & Dates

The name 'Byzantine' was coined by 16th-century historians based on the fact that the capital [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/)'s first name was Byzantium before it changed to Constantinople (modern Istanbul). It was and continues to be a less-than-perfect but convenient label which differentiates the Eastern Roman Empire from the [Western Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Western_Roman_Empire/), especially important after the fall of the latter in the 5th century. Indeed, for this reason, there is no universal agreement amongst historians as to what period of time the term 'Byzantine Empire' actually refers to. Some scholars select 330 and the foundation of Constantinople, others the [Fall of the Western Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/835/fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/) in 476, still others prefer the failure of [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/) (r. 527-565) to unify the two empires in 565, and some even plum for c. 650 and the Arab [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of Byzantium's eastern provinces. Most historians do agree that the Byzantine Empire terminated on Tuesday 29 May 1453, when the Ottoman Sultan [Mehmed II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mehmed_II/) (r.1444-6 & 1451-81) conquered Constantinople.

The discussion of dates also highlights the differences in the ethnic and cultural mix between the two halves of the Roman world and the distinctness of the medieval state from its earlier Roman heritage. The Byzantines called themselves 'Romans', their emperor was *basileon ton Rhomaion* or 'Emperor of the Romans' and their capital was 'New Rome'. However, the most common language was Greek, and it is fair to say that for the vast majority of its history, the Byzantine Empire was much more Greek than Roman in cultural terms.

### Constantinople

The beginnings of the Byzantine Empire lie in the decision of [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) I to relocate the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium on 11 May 330. The popular name Constantinople or 'City of Constantine' soon replaced the emperor's own official choice of 'New Rome'. The new capital had an excellent natural harbour on the Golden Horn inlet and, straddled on the border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships through the Bosphorus from the [Aegean](https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/) to the Black Sea, linking lucrative [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) between west and east. A great chain stretched across the Golden Horn's entrance, and the construction of the massive [Theodosian Walls](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theodosian_Walls/) between 410 and 413 meant that the city was able to withstand time and again concerted attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries, as more spectacular buildings were added, the cosmopolitan city became one of the finest of any epoch and certainly the richest, most lavish and most important Christian city in the world.

[ ![Map of Byzantine Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/564.png?v=1775131705) Map of Byzantine Constantinople Cplakidas (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/564/map-of-byzantine-constantinople/ "Map of Byzantine Constantinople")### Byzantine Emperors

The [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) or *basileus* (or more rarely *basilissa* for empress) resided in the magnificent [Great Palace of Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1211/the-great-palace-of-constantinople/) and ruled as an absolute monarch over a vast empire. As such, the *basileus* needed the assistance of an expert government and a widespread and efficient bureaucracy. Although an absolute ruler, an emperor was expected - by his government, people and the Church - to rule wisely and justly. Even more importantly, an emperor had to have military success as the army remained the most powerful institution in Byzantium in real terms. The generals in Constantinople and the provinces could - and did - remove an emperor who failed to defend the empire's borders or who brought economic catastrophe. Still, in the normal run of events, the emperor was commander-in-chief of the army, head of the Church and government, he controlled the state finances and appointed or dismissed nobles at will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded such power.

The emperor's image appeared on Byzantine coins, which were also used to show a chosen successor, often the eldest son, but not always as there were no set rules for succession. Emperors were thought to have been chosen by [God](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/) to govern, but a magnificent crown and robes of [Tyrian purple](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyrian_Purple/) helped further bolster the right to rule. Another marketing strategy was to copy the reign names of illustrious predecessors, Constantine being a particular favourite. Even usurpers, typically military men of power and success, very often sought to legitimise their position by marrying a member of their predecessors family. Thus, through a carefully orchestrated continuity of dynasties, ritual, costume, and names, the institution of the emperor was able to last for 12 centuries.

### [Byzantine Government](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Government/)

The Byzantine government followed the patterns established in imperial Rome. The emperor was all-powerful but was still expected to consult such important bodies as the Senate. The Senate in Constantinople, unlike in Rome, was composed of men who had risen through the ranks of the military service, and so there was no senatorial class as such. Without elections, Byzantine senators, ministers, and local councillors largely acquired their position through imperial patronage or because of their status as large landowners.

[ ![Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/3341.jpg?v=1775638447) Justinian I Sponsored by a Greek banker, Julius Argentarius (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3341/justinian-i/ "Justinian I")The elite senators made up the small *sacrum consistorium* which the emperor was, in theory, supposed to consult on matters of state importance. In addition, the emperor might consult members of his personal entourage at court. Also at court were the eunuch chamberlains (*cubicularii*) who served the emperor in various personal duties but who could also control access to him. Eunuchs held positions of responsibility themselves, chief amongst these being the holder of the emperor's purse, the *sakellarios,* whose powers would increase significantly from the 7th century. Other important government officials included the [quaestor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Quaestor/) or chief legal officer; the *comes sacrarum largitionum* who controlled the state mint; the *magister officiorum* who looked after the general administration of the [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/), the army and its supplies, as well as foreign affairs; and a team of imperial inspectors who kept an eye on affairs in local councils across the empire.

The top official in Byzantium, though, was the Praetorian Prefect of the East to whom all regional governors of the empire were accountable. The regional governors supervised the individual city councils or *curae*. Local councillors were responsible for all public services and the collection of taxes in their town and its surrounding lands. These councils were organised geographically into 100 or so provinces which were themselves arranged into 12 dioceses, three in each of the empire's four prefectures. From the 7th century the regional governors of the dioceses, or *themes* as they became known after a restructuring, in effect, became provincial military commanders (*strategoi*) who were directly responsible to the emperor himself, and the Praetorian Prefect was abolished. After the 8th century the administration of the empire, due to the increased military threat from neighbours and internal civil wars, became much more simplified than previously.

### [Corpus Juris Civilis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Corpus_Juris_Civilis/)

Byzantine government was greatly assisted by the creation of the Justinian Code or *Corpus Juris Civilis* (Corpus of Civil [Law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/)) by Justinian I. The corpus, drawn up by a panel of legal experts, collected, edited, and revised the huge body of Roman laws which had been accumulated over the centuries - a massive number of imperial edicts, legal opinions, and lists of crimes and punishments. The code, composed of over a million words, would last for 900 years, make the laws clearer for all, reduce the number of cases unnecessarily brought before the courts, speed up the judicial process and influence most legal systems in western democracies thereafter.

### Byzantine Society

The Byzantines gave great importance to the family name, inherited wealth, and the respectable birth of an individual. The individuals in the higher levels of society possessed these three things. Wealth came from land ownership or the administration of land under an individual administrator's jurisdiction. However, there was no aristocracy of blood as such in Byzantine society, and both patronage and education were a means to climb the social ladder. In addition, the dispensing of favours, lands, and titles by emperors, as well as indiscriminate demotions and the hazards of foreign invasions and wars, all meant that the individual components of the nobility were not static and families rose and fell over the centuries. Rank was visible to all members of society through the use of titles, seals, insignia, particular clothing, and personal jewellery.

[ ![Byzantine Ivory Diptych Panel](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5727.jpg?v=1775638451) Byzantine Ivory Diptych Panel Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5727/byzantine-ivory-diptych-panel/ "Byzantine Ivory Diptych Panel")Most in the lower classes would have followed the profession of their parents, but inheritance, the accumulation of wealth, and a lack of any formal prohibition for one class to move to another did at least offer a small possibility for a person to better their social position. There were workers with better jobs such as those who worked in legal affairs, administration, and commerce (not a very esteemed way to make a living for the Byzantines). On the next rung down were artisans, then farmers who owned their own small parcels of land, then the largest group - those who worked the land of others, and finally, slaves who were typically prisoners of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) but nowhere near as numerous as free labourers.

The role of Byzantine [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/), as with the men, depended on their social rank. Aristocratic women were expected to manage the home and care for the children. Although able to own property, they could not hold public office and spent their free time weaving, shopping, going to church or reading (although they had no formal education). Widows became the guardian of their children and could inherit equally with their brothers. Many women worked, as men, in [agriculture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Agriculture/) and various manufacturing industries and food services. Women could own their own land and businesses, and some would have improved their social position through marriage. The least respected professions were, as elsewhere, prostitutes and actresses.

### Territories of the Byzantine Empire

The geographical extent of the Byzantine Empire changed over the centuries as the military successes and failures of individual emperors fluctuated. Territories which were held in the earlier part of the empire's history included [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/), [Jordan](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jordan/), Lebanon, and [Palestine](https://www.worldhistory.org/palestine/). Greece was less important in practical terms than it was as a symbol of the Byzantine's view of themselves as the true heirs of the Greco-Roman [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/). Italy and [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) had to be defended, ultimately unsuccessfully, against the ambitions of the Popes and the Normans. The Balkans up to the Danube River were important throughout, and Asia Minor up to the Black Sea coast in the north and [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) in the east was a major source of wealth, but both these regions would require regular and vigorous defence against various perennial enemies.

As the political map was constantly redrawn with the rise and fall of neighbouring empires, notable events included [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) (491-518) successfully defending the empire against both the Persians and Bulgars. Justinian I, aided by his gifted general [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/) (c. 500-565), won back territories in North Africa, Spain, and Italy which had been lost by the western emperors. The [Lombards](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lombards/) in Italy and the [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/) in the Balkans made inroads into the Empire during the second half of the 6th century, a situation eventually reversed by [Heraclius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclius/) (r. 610-641), effectively bringing the Persian [Sasanian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) to an end with his victory at [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/) in 627.

[ ![Map of the Byzantine Empire, c.520 - 1204](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15330.png?v=1775638455-1749043402) Map of the Byzantine Empire, c.520 - 1204 Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15330/map-of-the-byzantine-empire-c520---1204/ "Map of the Byzantine Empire, c.520 - 1204")The Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th century robbed the Empire of its territories in the Levant (including [Jerusalem](https://www.worldhistory.org/jerusalem/) in 637), North Africa and eastern Asia Minor. At least, though, the Empire stood firm as a bulwark against the Arab expansion into Europe, with Constantinople twice withstanding determined Arab sieges (674-8 and 717-18). The Byzantine Empire was shaken to its foundations, though. Then in the 9th century, the Bulgars made significant incursions into the northern areas of the Empire. A resurgence in Byzantine fortunes came with the (inappropriately named) Macedonian dynasty (867-1057). The founder of the dynasty, [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/) (r. 867-886), reconquered southern Italy, dealt with the troublesome Cretan pirates, and gained victories against the Arabs on [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/), mainland Greece and in Dalmatia. The very next emperor, [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/) (r. 886-912) lost most of the gains, but the mid-10th century saw victories in Muslim-controlled [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).

[Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) (r. 976-1025), known as the 'Bulgar-Slayer' for his victories in the Balkans, oversaw another startling upturn in Byzantine fortunes. Basil, helped by an army of fierce warriors of [Viking](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vikings/) descent from Kiev, also won victories in Greece, Armenia, Georgia, and Syria, doubling the size of the Empire. It was though, the last great hurrah as a gradual decline set in. After the shocking defeat to the Seljuks at the [Battle of Manzikert](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1189/battle-of-manzikert/) in Armenia in 1071, a brief revival occurred under [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) (r. 1081-1118) with victories against the Normans in Dalmatia, the Pechenegs in Thrace, and the Seljuks in Palestine and Syria (with the help of the First Crusaders), but there seemed to be too many enemies in too many regions for the Byzantines to prosper indefinitely.

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In the 12th and 13th century the Sultanate of Rum took half of Asia Minor, and then disaster struck when the armies of the [Fourth Crusade](https://www.worldhistory.org/Fourth_Crusade/) sacked Constantinople in 1204. Carved up between Venice and its allies, the Empire existed only in exile before a restoration in 1261. By the 14th century the Empire consisted of a small area in the tip of southern Greece and a chunk of territory around the capital. The final blow came, as already mentioned, with the Ottoman sack of Constantinople in 1453.

### The Byzantine Church

Paganism continued to be practised for centuries after the foundation of Byzantium, but it was [Christianity](https://www.worldhistory.org/christianity/) which became the defining feature of Byzantine culture, profoundly affecting its politics, foreign relations, and art and architecture. The Church was headed by the Patriarch or bishop of Constantinople, who was appointed or removed by the emperor. Local bishops, who presided over larger towns and their surrounding territories and who represented both the church and emperor, had considerable wealth and powers in their local communities. Christianity, then, became an important common denominator which helped bind together diverse cultures into a single empire which included Christian Greeks, Armenians, Slavs, Georgians, and many other minorities, and those of other faiths such as Jews and Muslims who were permitted to freely practise their religion.

[ ![Icon of Saint Basil](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/8571.jpg?v=1775638458) Icon of Saint Basil Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8571/icon-of-saint-basil/ "Icon of Saint Basil")The differences in the eastern and western church was one of the reasons that the Byzantine Empire received such a poor representation in western medieval histories. Frequently Byzantines were portrayed as decadent and shifty, their culture stagnant, and their religion a dangerous heresy. The churches of the east and west disagreed on who should have priority, the Pope or the Patriarch of Constantinople. Matters of doctrine were also contested, such as did [Jesus Christ](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/) have one human and one divine nature combined or just a divine nature. Clerical celibacy, the use of leavened or unleavened bread, the language of service, and the use of imagery were all points of differences, which, with the fuel of political and territorial ambitions added into the volatile mix of emotions, led to the Church Schism of 1054.

The Byzantine church also had its own internal disputes, most infamously the iconoclasm or 'destruction of images' of 726-787 and 814-843. The Popes and many Byzantines supported the use of icons - representations of holy figures but especially [Jesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/) Christ. Those against icons believed they had become idols and it was blasphemous to think that God could be represented in art. The issue also reignited the debate over whether Christ had two natures or one and whether an icon, therefore, only represented the human. Defenders of icons said that they were merely an artist's impression and helped the illiterate better understand the divine. During the wave of iconoclasm, many precious artworks were destroyed, especially during the reigns of [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/) (r. 717-741) and his successor [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) (r. 741-775) when even people who venerated icons (iconophiles) were persecuted. The issue was resolved in favour of icons in 843, an event known as the “Triumph of Orthodoxy".

Monasticism was a particular feature of Byzantine religious life. Men and women retired to monasteries where they devoted their lives to Christ and helping the poor and sick. There they lived a simple life according to rules laid out by such important church figures as [Basil the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_the_Great/) (c. 330 - c. 379). Many monks were also scholars, most famously [Saint Cyril](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saint_Cyril/) (d. 867) who invented the Glagolitic [alphabet](https://www.worldhistory.org/alphabet/). A notable woman who used her time of retreat well was [Anna Komnene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anna_Komnene/) (1083-1153), who wrote her *Alexiad* on the life and reign of her father [Alexios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) Komnenos (r. 1081-1118). Monasteries thus became invaluable repositories of texts and knowledge while their wine-production and icon workshops were greatly appreciated, too. One of the most celebrated monastic sites is [Mount Athos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mount_Athos/) near [Thessalonica](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thessalonica/), where monks established themselves from the 9th century, eventually building 46 monasteries there, many of which survive today.

[ ![Byzantine Book Cover with Icon](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/8960.jpg?v=1775638462) Byzantine Book Cover with Icon The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8960/byzantine-book-cover-with-icon/ "Byzantine Book Cover with Icon")### [Byzantine Art](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Art/)

Byzantine artists moved away from the naturalism of the Classical tradition towards the more abstract and universal, displaying a definite preference for two-dimensional representations. The rarity of signatures on works of art produced before the 13th century suggests that artists did not enjoy a high social status. Artworks which promoted a religious message - principally the need for salvation and a reinforcement of faith - were produced in huge numbers and chief amongst these were [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) mosaics, wall paintings, and icons. Although icons could take almost any form of material, the most popular were small painted wooden panels. Designed to be carried or hung on walls, they were made using the encaustic technique where coloured pigments were mixed with wax and burned into the wood as an inlay. With the purpose of facilitating communication between the onlooker and the divine, the single figures are typically full frontal with a nimbus or halo around them to emphasise their holiness.

Byzantine mosaics, best seen today in the [Hagia Sophia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hagia_Sophia/) in Istanbul or the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, represented holy figures, emperors and empresses, church officials, and scenes of daily life, especially in agriculture. Large-scale [sculpture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Sculpture/) seems to have been less popular than in earlier antiquity, but sculpted marble sarcophagi were produced in great numbers. Finally, metalwork, especially incorporating enamel-work and cabochon semi-precious stones, was a Byzantine speciality, and artisans produced many high-quality and intricately designed plates, cups, jewellery of all kinds, book covers (especially for Bibles), and reliquaries (boxes for keeping holy relics).

### [Byzantine Architecture](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Architecture/)

Byzantine architects continued to employ the Classical orders in their buildings and took ideas from the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/), amongst other places. Designs became more eclectic than in antiquity, especially given the common habit of reusing the materials from older buildings for new structures. There was, too, a definite emphasis on function over form and a greater concern with the interiors rather than exteriors of buildings. Continuing to build such quintessentially Roman structures as arched [aqueducts](https://www.worldhistory.org/aqueduct/), amphitheatres, hippodromes, baths and villas, the Byzantines would add to the repertoire with their domed churches, walled monasteries, and more sophisticated fortification walls.

[ ![Hagia Sophia Interior](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/8973.jpg?v=1778036237) Hagia Sophia Interior Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8973/hagia-sophia-interior/ "Hagia Sophia Interior")Favoured building materials were large bricks with mortar and concrete for the hidden core of walls. Ashlar stone blocks were used in more prestigious public buildings while marble, used more sparingly than in earlier Roman times, was generally reserved for columns, door and window frames, and other decorative elements. Roofs were of timber while interior walls were frequently covered in plaster, stucco, thin marble plaques, paintings, and mosaics.

The largest, most important and still most famous Byzantine building is the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, dedicated to the holy wisdom (*hagia sophia*) of God. Built anew in 532-537, its basic rectangular shape measures 74.6 x 69.7 metres (245 x 229 ft) and its huge domed ceiling is 55 metres above the floor, spanning 31.8 metres in diameter. Resting on four massive arches with four supporting pendentives, the dome was a spectacular architectural achievement for the period. The Hagia Sophia remained the biggest church in the world until the 16th century and was one of the most decorated with superb glittering mosaics and wall paintings.

Christian churches, in general, were one of the Byzantine's greatest contributions to architecture, especially the use of the dome. The cross-in-square plan became the most common with the dome built over four supporting arches. The square base of the building then branched into bays which might themselves have a half or full dome ceiling. Another common feature is a central apse with two side-apses at the eastern end of the church. Over time, the central dome was raised ever higher on a polygonal drum, which in some churches is so high it has the appearance of a tower. Many churches, especially basilicas, had alongside them a baptistry (usually octagonal), and sometimes a mausoleum for the founder of the church and their descendants. Such Byzantine design features would go on to influence Orthodox Christian architecture and so are still seen today in churches worldwide.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Bagnall, R. *The Encyclopedia of Ancient History.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0307407969/)
- [Brownworth, L. *Lost to the West.* Broadway Books, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0307407969/)
- [Gregory, T.E. *A History of Byzantium.* Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/140518471X/)
- [Herrin, J. *Byzantium.* Princeton University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0691143692/)
- [Mango, C. *The Oxford History of Byzantium.* Oxford University Press, 2002.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0198140983/)
- [Norwich, J.J. *A Short History of Byzantium by John Julius Norwich.* Knopf, 2018.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B01K2R3B6U/)
- [Shepherd, J. *The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492.* Cambridge University Press, 2009.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0521832314/)

## About the Author

Mark is WHE’s Publishing Director and has an MA in Political Philosophy (University of York). He is a full-time researcher, writer, historian and editor. Special interests include art, architecture and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share.

## Timeline

- **285 CE**: The [Roman empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Empire/) is split into the Western and Eastern [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) empires.
- **312 CE**: [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) introduces the [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) nomisma (solidus) [coin](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/).
- **312 CE**: [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/) tolerates [Christianity](https://www.worldhistory.org/christianity/).
- **c. 330 CE - c. 379 CE**: Life of Basil Great, one of the founding fathers of the Eastern Christian Church and [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Monasteries.
- **11 May 330 CE**: [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) is founded on the site of old [Byzantium](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantium/) as "the new [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/)."
- **c. 331 CE**: The [Great Palace of Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1211/the-great-palace-of-constantinople/) is first built by [Constantine I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_I/).
- **360 CE**: First [Hagia Sophia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hagia_Sophia/) built in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **361 CE**: [Roman emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Emperor/) Julian attempts to revive Paganism.
- **c. 370 CE**: [Basil the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_the_Great/) is made the bishop of [Caesarea](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Caesarea/) in Cappadocia.
- **376 CE**: The [Visigoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/visigoth/) are fleeing the [Huns](https://www.worldhistory.org/Huns/), entering the [Eastern Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **391 CE**: Emperor Theodosius I closes pagan temples.
- **395 CE**: The [statue of Zeus at Olympia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia/) is removed to [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **395 CE - 408 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Arkadios.
- **395 CE - 637 CE**: [Byblos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byblos/) is a colony of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) (formerly known as the [Eastern Roman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/)).
- **408 CE - 450 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Thedosius II.
- **410 CE - 413 CE**: The [Theodosian Walls](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theodosian_Walls/) are built to better protect [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **450 CE - 457 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Marcian.
- **8 Oct 451 CE - 1 Nov 451 CE**: Fourth Ecumenical Council takes place in Chalcedon, determining that [Jesus Christ](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/) had two distinct natures and wills, perfectly united.
- **457 CE**: [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/) is crowned by the Patriarch of [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/), the first [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) to be crowned by a bishop.
- **457 CE - 474 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/).
- **466 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/) gives his daughter [Ariadne](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ariadne/) as a wife to the Isaurian chief Tarasicodissa (Zeno).
- **468 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army led by Basiliscus is defeated by the [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) in North [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **469 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) builds the Anastasian [Wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/).
- **471 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_I/) conspires to murder his rival the general Aspar.
- **474 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leo II.
- **474 CE - 491 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Zeno.
- **475 CE - 476 CE**: Revolt of Basiliscus against Zeno in the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **479 CE**: Revolt by Marcian against Zeno in the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **481 CE**: Theodoric Strabo marches on [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **482 CE**: Patriarch Acacius and Zeno release the Henotikon, an attempted religious compromise, which creates the Acacian Schism with [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **484 CE - 519 CE**: Acacian Schism between the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the Pope in [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).
- **491 CE - 518 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) introduces the [copper](https://www.worldhistory.org/copper/) follis [coin](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/) (288 are worth one [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) nomisma).
- **491 CE - 518 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/).
- **c. 493 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) builds the Long [Wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) in Thrace to protect [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **497 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) recognises Theodoric as the King of [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **498 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) abolishes the chrysargyron, an unpopular tax on business transactions.
- **c. 504 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) retakes the fortress of Amida on the Persian frontier.
- **505 CE - 507 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) builds a new fortress at Anastasiopolis (Dara) on the frontier with [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **506 CE**: A peace treaty is signed between the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the Persians.
- **507 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Anastasios I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anastasios_I/) sends [Clovis I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Clovis_I/), the king of the [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) in [Gaul](https://www.worldhistory.org/gaul/), a fleet to aid his [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) with the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/).
- **513 CE - 515 CE**: Vitalian leads a revolt in [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) nThrace.
- **518 CE - 527 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Justin I.
- **525 CE**: [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/) marries Theodora, a woman from a poor background and possibly a courtesan.
- **527 CE - 548 CE**: Reign of [Empress Theodora](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Theodora/) of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **527 CE - 565 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/).
- **c. 527 CE - 646 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) controls [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **1 Apr 527 CE**: Coronation of [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/) and Theodora in the [Hagia Sophia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hagia_Sophia/) Church in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **529 CE**: The first part of Justinian's Code, the Codex Justinianus, is released and immediately adopted across the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **531 CE - 534 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) forces engaged in a series of military campaigns against the [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/) and other groups.
- **532 CE - 537 CE**: [Hagia Sophia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hagia_Sophia/) is built anew in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **533 CE**: [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/) defeats the Persians to the east of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) of [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **533 CE - 534 CE**: The [Vandal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) launched by Emperor [Justinian I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_I/), aimed a reconquering [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/) from the [Vandals](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/).
- **Dec 533 CE**: The Digestum and Institutiones parts of Justinian's Code are released which supersedes all previous laws across the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **534 CE**: Justinian of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers the [Vandal](https://www.worldhistory.org/Vandals/) kingdom in [Africa](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/africa/).
- **535 CE**: [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/)' first campaign against the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/) in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **536 CE**: [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) falls to [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/).
- **536 CE - 562 CE**: The [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **c. 540 CE**: The [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) mosaics of the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) are created.
- **545 CE - 550 CE**: [Belisarius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Belisarius/)' second campaign against in [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) against the [Ostrogoths](https://www.worldhistory.org/ostrogoth/) under [Totila](https://www.worldhistory.org/Totila/).
- **c. 550 CE**: The [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/) advance towards [Thessalonica](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thessalonica/), entering the region of the Hebrus River and the Thracian coast. Thessalonica is saved by the [Roman army](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Army/).
- **554 CE**: [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) conquers southern [Iberia](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/iberia/).
- **Jul 556 CE - c. Jul 572 CE**: Samaritan revolt beginning in [Caesarea Maritima](https://www.worldhistory.org/Caesarea_Maritima/), perhaps with Jewish support. A number of churches are destroyed and there is a significant loss of life.
- **565 CE - 578 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Justin II.
- **578 CE - 582 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Tiberius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius/) II.
- **c. 580 CE**: The [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/) and the [Avars](https://www.worldhistory.org/Avars/) overwhelm [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/), Thrace and [Thessaly](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Thessaly/).
- **582 CE - 602 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Maurice.
- **585 CE**: The [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/) march on to [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/), they are driven off by the [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) defence.
- **602 CE - 610 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Phocas.
- **607 CE - 627 CE**: East [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/) defeats [Sasanian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sasanian_Empire/) [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **610 CE - 641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Heraclius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclius/).
- **626 CE**: A coalition of Persians, [Slavs](https://www.worldhistory.org/Slavs/), [Avars](https://www.worldhistory.org/Avars/) and Bulgars unsuccessfully lays siege to [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **627 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Heraclius](https://www.worldhistory.org/Heraclius/) wins a crushing victory over the Persian army at [Nineveh](https://www.worldhistory.org/nineveh/).
- **628 CE**: [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) re-takes [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/), [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), from the Persians.
- **636 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army is crushed by an Arab force at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Yarmuk.
- **637 CE**: Muslim invasion of the [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/). The Byzantines are driven out.
- **641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) III.
- **641 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Heraklonas.
- **641 CE - 668 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constans II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constans_II/).
- **642 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/) falls to the [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/).
- **649 CE**: The [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/) attacks [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Cyprus](https://www.worldhistory.org/cyprus/).
- **654 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Crete](https://www.worldhistory.org/crete/), [Kos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Kos/) and [Rhodes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rhodes/) fall to the [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/).
- **655 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) fleet is destroyed by the [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/) off the coast of [Lycia](https://www.worldhistory.org/lycia/).
- **659 CE**: A peace treaty is signed between the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the [Rashidun Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rashidun_Caliphate/).
- **668 CE - 685 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine IV](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_IV/).
- **674 CE - 678 CE**: The Arab [Umayyad Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Umayyad_Dynasty/) unsuccessfully besieges [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **678 CE**: First recorded use of [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) in [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) during the Arab siege of [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **679 CE**: The [Umayyad Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Umayyad_Dynasty/) is obliged by treaty to give up former [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) territories in the [Aegean](https://www.worldhistory.org/aegean/).
- **680 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) naval fleet is defeated by the Bulgars.
- **680 CE - 681 CE**: The Sixth Ecumenical Council in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) declares the end of Monotheletism and Monoenergism.
- **681 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine IV](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_IV/) signs a peace treaty with the Bulgars.
- **685 CE - 695 CE**: First reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/).
- **c. 691 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/) mints the first coins to depict [Jesus Christ](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/).
- **695 CE**: The usurper Leontios exiles [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/).
- **695 CE - 698 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leontios.
- **698 CE**: The [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) ruler Leontios is exiled by the usurper Apsimar (aka Tiberios III).
- **698 CE - 705 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Tiberios II.
- **705 CE**: [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/) besieges [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) and reinstates himself as [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/), removing the usurper Tiberios III.
- **705 CE - 711 CE**: Second reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/).
- **709 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Tyana in Cappadocia is lost to the Arabs.
- **711 CE**: Pope [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) visits [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) at the invitation of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/).
- **711 CE - 713 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Philippikos.
- **4 Nov 711 CE**: The general and usurper Philippikos murders [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Justinian II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Justinian_II/).
- **713 CE - 716 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Anastasius II
- **716 CE - 717 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Theodosius III.
- **717 CE - 718 CE**: [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) is used by [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) ships to attack an Arab fleet besieging [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **717 CE - 741 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/).
- **717 CE - 802 CE**: The Isaurian dynasty, founded by [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/), rules the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **720 CE - 721 CE**: The [silver](https://www.worldhistory.org/Silver/) miliaresion [coin](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/) is introduced in the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) by [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/).
- **726 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/) makes legal reforms, publishing his Ecloga.
- **730 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/) decrees that all religious icons be destroyed.
- **740 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_III/) wins a decisive victory over the Arabs at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Akroinon.
- **741 CE - 775 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/)
- **744 CE**: Emperor [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) regains the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) throne from the usurper Artabasdos.
- **746 CE - 752 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) conducts successful campaigns in northern [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) and [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/).
- **754 CE**: The Council of Hieria declares the worship of icons by Christians as heresy.
- **755 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) instigates a persecution of Christians who worship icons.
- **756 CE - 775 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine V](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_V/) wins a string of military victories against the Bulgars.
- **775 CE - 780 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Leo IV.
- **780 CE - 790 CE**: [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) rules as regent for [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/).
- **780 CE - 797 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/) (with [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) as regent 780-790 CE).
- **Sep 787 CE**: The Ecumenical Council of Nicaea rules an end to iconoclasm in the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Christian Church.
- **790 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/) exiles his mother and regent [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/).
- **795 CE**: [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/) divorces Mary of Amnia and then marries his mistress Theodote, causing the so-called Moechian Controversy, which divides the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Church.
- **797 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) blinds and kills her son [Constantine VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VI/).
- **797 CE - 802 CE**: [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) rules the [Byzantine empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **797 CE - 802 CE**: [Empress Irene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Irene/) is the first [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) ruler to put an image of herself on both sides of her [coinage](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/).
- **802 CE - 811 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Nikephoros I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_I/).
- **807 CE**: A peace treaty is signed between king of the [Franks](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franks/) [Charlemagne](https://www.worldhistory.org/Charlemagne/) and [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Nikephoros I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_I/).
- **811 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Stavrakios.
- **811 CE - 813 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael I.
- **813 CE - 820 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo V the Armenian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_V_the_Armenian/).
- **814 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo V the Armenian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_V_the_Armenian/) defeats a Bulgar army near Mesembria.
- **815 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo V the Armenian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_V_the_Armenian/) proclaims the veneration of icons as heresy.
- **820 CE - 823 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_II/) puts down a revolt led by Thomas the Slav.
- **820 CE - 829 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_II/).
- **821 CE - 822 CE**: [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) is used by [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) ships to attack a Slav fleet besieging [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **Dec 821 CE - Dec 823 CE**: Thomas the Slav unsuccessfully besieges [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **829 CE - 842 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Theophilos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theophilos/).
- **830 CE - 831 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Theophilos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Theophilos/) wins victories in Cilica and awards himself a [triumph](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Triumph/).
- **838 CE**: The Arab [Caliphate](https://www.worldhistory.org/Islamic_Caliphates/) defeats a [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army and captures the [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Ankara and Amorion.
- **839 CE**: The [Byzantine empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) loses Taranto in southern [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/) to the western Arabs.
- **842 CE - 855 CE**: Theodora rules as regent for her son [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/), emperor of the [Byzantine empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **842 CE - 867 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/).
- **855 CE - 856 CE**: [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) removes his mother Theodora, the regent, and rules alone as emperor of the [Byzantine empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **856 CE**: The armies of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) win great victories in Cappadocia and [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/).
- **862 CE**: Council of Sirakawan between the Armenian and [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Orthodox Churches discuss Christological issues in an effort to reunify, although ultimately unsuccessful.
- **863 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) sends [Saint Cyril](https://www.worldhistory.org/Saint_Cyril/) and Methodius on a mission to Moravia.
- **864 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) presides over the baptism of Boris I, khan of the Bulgars.
- **866 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) makes Basil the Macedonian co-emperor.
- **867 CE**: Basil the Macedonian murders [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Michael III](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_III/) and declares himself Emperor [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/).
- **867 CE - 886 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/).
- **883 CE**: A decree by [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/) is the first recorded evidence of a monastery on [Mount Athos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mount_Athos/).
- **886 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_I/) is (probably) murdered by his son and successor [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/).
- **886 CE - 912 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/).
- **894 CE**: Symeon, [Tsar](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tsar/) of the Bulgars, invades Thrace, then [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) territory.
- **1 Aug 902 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Taormina on [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) falls to Arab attacks.
- **904 CE**: Leo of Tripoli leads an Arab force which sacks [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Thessaloniki](https://www.worldhistory.org/Thessalonica/) and Abydos.
- **912 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VII/) inherits the throne but is served by four consecutive regents.
- **912 CE - 913 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/).
- **920 CE**: [Romanos I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romanos_I/)'s Tome of Union reconciles the rift in the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Church caused by [Leo VI](https://www.worldhistory.org/Leo_VI/)'s third and fourth marriages.
- **920 CE - 944 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Romanos I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romanos_I/) Lekapenos.
- **922 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Romanos I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romanos_I/) passes a [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) to protect the land of the peasantry.
- **934 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army captures Melitene in Cappadocia.
- **941 CE**: [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) is used by [Romanos I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Romanos_I/)'s fleet against a Russian fleet attacking [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **943 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army led by John Kourkouas captures the border Mesopotamians fortresses of Nisibis, Dara, Amida, and Martyropolis.
- **944 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army led by John Kourkouas besieges [Edessa](https://www.worldhistory.org/edessa/). The Mandylion icon is taken to [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/)
- **945 CE - 959 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantine_VII/) (ruled with a regent from 912 CE).
- **959 CE - 963 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanos II.
- **962 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) forces under Nikephoros Phokas sack Anazarbos and Hierapolis in [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/).
- **963 CE**: The Great Lavra monastery on [Mount Athos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mount_Athos/) is founded by Saint Athanasios.
- **963 CE - 969 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Nikephoros II Phokas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_II_Phokas/).
- **963 CE - 969 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Nikephoros II Phokas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_II_Phokas/) introduces the [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) tetarteron [coin](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/) (one-twelfth of a gold nomisma in value).
- **965 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) forces are defeated and forced out of [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) by Muslim troops.
- **968 CE**: [Nikephoros II Phokas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_II_Phokas/) marches [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) forces as far south as Lebanon.
- **969 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) forces recapture the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Antioch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antiochia/) from the Arabs.
- **969 CE**: John Tzimiskes murders [Nikephoros II Phokas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nikephoros_II_Phokas/) in the imperial [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **969 CE - 976 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine Emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John I Tzimiskes](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_I_Tzimiskes/).
- **970 CE**: The Treaty of Safar makes Aleppo a client state of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **971 CE**: [John I Tzimiskes](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_I_Tzimiskes/) and the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army defeat the Rus at Dorystolon, forcing Sviatoslav and the Rus army to retreat from Bulgaria.
- **972 CE**: [John I Tzimiskes](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_I_Tzimiskes/) captures Nisibis and forces the Emir of Mosul to pay tribute to the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **972 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John I Tzimisces uses [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) to take the Bulgar capital of Preslav, then in Russian hands.
- **975 CE**: [John I Tzimiskes](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_I_Tzimiskes/) invades [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/), conquering several [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) and forcing neighboring Muslim states such as Damascus to pay tribute to the Byzantines.
- **976 CE - 1025 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/).
- **986 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) suffers a terrible defeat to [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) the Bulgar at [Trajan](https://www.worldhistory.org/trajan/)'s Gate.
- **987 CE - 989 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) defeats the usurpers Bardas Skleros and Bardas Phokas.
- **c. 988 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) uses a force of Varangians for the first time.
- **988 CE - 989 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) uses [Greek Fire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Fire/) to attack a rebel force led by the usurper Bardas Phokas.
- **994 CE**: [Trdat the Architect](https://www.worldhistory.org/Trdat_the_Architect/) completes his reconstruction of the dome of [Hagia Sophia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hagia_Sophia/), [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **995 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) wins victories in [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) against the Fatimids.
- **997 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) reconquers [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) from [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) the Bulgar.
- **1014 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) wins final victory against [Samuel](https://www.worldhistory.org/samuel/) the Bulgar at Kleidion.
- **1018 CE - c. 1082 CE**: Life of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) minister, scholar, and historian [Michael Psellos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Michael_Psellos/).
- **1021 CE - 1022 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) wins victories in [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) and Georgia.
- **1025 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Basil II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Basil_II/) dies and his plans to invade [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/) are abandoned.
- **1025 CE - 1028 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) VIII.
- **1025 CE - 1028 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) VIII.
- **1028 CE - 1034 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanos III Argyros.
- **1028 CE - 1050 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Empress Zoe](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Zoe/) (including spells alongside three husbands, a nephew and sister).
- **1034 CE - 1041 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael IV the Paphalgonian.
- **1040 CE**: The Bulgarian leader Deljan starts a major Bulgarian uprising against the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **1041 CE - 1042 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael V.
- **1042 CE - 1055 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) IX.
- **Apr 1042 CE - Jun 1042 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) empresses Zoe and Theodora.
- **1055 CE - 1056 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Empress Theodora](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empress_Theodora/) (alone).
- **1056 CE - 1057 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VI.
- **1057 CE**: Isaac Komnenos and other leading military men in the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) rebel against Emperor Michael VI.
- **1057 CE - 1059 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Isaac I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Isaac_I_Komnenos/).
- **8 Jun 1057 CE**: Isaac Komnenos is declared [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) by imperial soldiers in [Anatolia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/) in rebellion against Emperor Michael VI.
- **1059 CE**: [Isaac I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Isaac_I_Komnenos/) defeats the Pechenegs in [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/), but loses soldiers in a storm during his march home.
- **1059 CE - 1067 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) X.
- **1067 CE - 1071 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Romanus IV Diogenes.
- **1068 CE**: The Normans under [Robert Guiscard](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_Guiscard/) begin the three-year siege of Bari, the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) provincial capital of southern [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **1071 CE - 1078 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VII.
- **1078 CE - 1081 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Nikephoros III.
- **1081 CE - 1082 CE**: The Normans, led by [Robert Guiscard](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_Guiscard/), attack [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/).
- **Apr 1081 CE - Aug 1118 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/).
- **1082 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) grants [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) access and privileges to the Venetians in return for naval support.
- **1083 CE - 1153 CE**: Life of the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) historian [Anna Komnene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anna_Komnene/).
- **1084 CE**: The Normans defeat a Venetian naval force, allies of the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **1085 CE**: [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) recaptures Dyracchion from the Normans.
- **1087 CE - 1090 CE**: The Pechenegs attack [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Thrace.
- **29 Apr 1091 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army, with Cumans as allies, defeats the Pechenegs at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Mount Lebounion.
- **1092 CE**: [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) introduces the electrum hyperpyron [coin](https://www.worldhistory.org/coinage/) (worth one-third of a [gold](https://www.worldhistory.org/gold/) nomisma).
- **1095 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Alexios I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexios_I_Komnenos/) quashes a rebellion led by Nikephoros Diogenes.
- **1097 CE**: The First Crusaders capture Nicaea.
- **3 Jun 1098 CE**: The First Crusaders capture [Antioch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antiochia/) after an 8-month siege.
- **c. 1100 CE**: The [Jesus Christ](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jesus_Christ/) [mosaic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mosaic/) in the dome of the church at Daphni, [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) is made.
- **1107 CE**: The Normans, led by Bohemund, besiege Dyracchion.
- **1108 CE**: The Treaty of Devol is signed between the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/) and the Normans, removing any Norman threat from the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/)'s territory.
- **1118 CE - 1143 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/).
- **1122 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) defeats the Pechenegs in the Balkans.
- **c. 1125 CE**: The Vladimir Icon of the Virgin and Child is painted in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **1126 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) restores the [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/) privileges given to the Venetians.
- **1129 CE**: Serbia is obliged to accept [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) sovereignty.
- **1130 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) defeats the Danishmendids in [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/).
- **1133 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) celebrates a [triumph](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roman_Triumph/) in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) after five successful campaigns in [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/).
- **c. 1137 CE**: [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) historian [Anna Komnene](https://www.worldhistory.org/Anna_Komnene/) begins her Alexiad.
- **1137 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) conquers the Rubenids in [Armenia](https://www.worldhistory.org/armenia/) and occupies the capital at Anazarbos.
- **1138 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [John II Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_II_Komnenos/) besieges and takes the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Shaizar in [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/).
- **1143 CE - 1180 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Manuel I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Manuel_I_Komnenos/).
- **1144 CE - 1146 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Manuel I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Manuel_I_Komnenos/) wins victories in [Cilicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cilicia/), [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) and [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/).
- **Sep 1147 CE - Oct 1147 CE**: The armies of the [Second Crusade](https://www.worldhistory.org/Second_Crusade/) arrive in [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **1149 CE**: A fleet led by George of [Antioch](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antiochia/) attacks [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).
- **1155 CE - 1157 CE**: The Byzantines unsuccessfully invade southern [Italy](https://www.worldhistory.org/italy/).
- **1158 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Manuel I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Manuel_I_Komnenos/) signs a treaty with William I of [Sicily](https://www.worldhistory.org/sicily/).
- **1171 CE**: [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Manuel I Komnenos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Manuel_I_Komnenos/) arrests 10,000 Venetian traders across the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) to limit their stranglehold on [trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/trade/).
- **17 Sep 1176 CE**: A [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) army is ambushed by the Seljuks at the [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Myriokephalon in Phyrgia.
- **1180 CE - 1183 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios II.
- **1183 CE - 1185 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos I.
- **1185 CE - 1195 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Isaac II.
- **1195 CE - 1203 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios III.
- **1203 CE - 1204 CE**: Joint reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) emperors Isaac II and Alexios IV.
- **1204 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Alexios IV.
- **1204 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) Alexios V.
- **1204 CE - 1261 CE**: Latin emperors rule the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **12 Apr 1204 CE**: [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) is sacked by the Fourth Crusaders.
- **1259 CE**: Michael VIII Palaiologos makes himself co-emperor in Nicaea with John IV Laskaris.
- **1259 CE - 1282 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael VIII.
- **c. 1260 CE**: The [wall](https://www.worldhistory.org/wall/) paintings of the church of Sancta Sophia in [Trebizond](https://www.worldhistory.org/Trapezus/) are made.
- **1261 CE**: Michael VIII Palaiologos enters [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/) and re-establishes it as the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) capital.
- **1271 CE**: [Golden Horde](https://www.worldhistory.org/Golden_Horde/) forces under Nogai invade the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **1282 CE**: John II Megas Komenos of the [Empire of Trebizond](https://www.worldhistory.org/Empire_of_Trebizond/) formally renounces his claim to the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **1282 CE - 1328 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos I.
- **1293 CE - 1320 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Michael IX.
- **1304 CE - 1309 CE**: Spanish mercenaries of the Catalan Grand Company attack the monasteries on [Mount Athos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mount_Athos/).
- **1306 CE**: The [Knights Hospitaller](https://www.worldhistory.org/Knights_Hospitaller/), looking for a new base, attack [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Rhodes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rhodes/).
- **1328 CE - 1341 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos III.
- **1341 CE - 1354 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VI.
- **1341 CE - 1376 CE**: First reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John V.
- **1370 CE - 1375 CE**: The [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) manuscript the Theological Works of John VI Cantacuzenos is produced and contains many miniature paintings.
- **1376 CE - 1379 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Andronikos IV.
- **1379 CE - 1391 CE**: Second reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John V.
- **1390 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VII.
- **1391 CE - 1425 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) Manuel II.
- **1397 CE**: The [Knights Hospitaller](https://www.worldhistory.org/Knights_Hospitaller/) buy [Corinth](https://www.worldhistory.org/corinth/) from the [Byzantine Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
- **1404 CE**: Last historical mention of the [Byzantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Byzantine/) [Varangian Guard](https://www.worldhistory.org/Varangian_Guard/).
- **1425 CE - 1448 CE**: Reign of [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) John VIII.
- **1430 CE**: The [Ottoman Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ottoman_Empire/) grants [Mount Athos](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mount_Athos/) and its monasteries independence in exchange for annual tribute.
- **1449 CE - 1453 CE**: Reign of the last [Byzantine emperor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Emperor/) [Constantine](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Constantine/) XI.
- **29 May 1453 CE**: Ottoman Sultan [Mehmed II](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mehmed_II/) sacks [Constantinople](https://www.worldhistory.org/Constantinople/).

## Questions & Answers

### What was the Byzantine Empire known for?
The Byzantine Empire was known for being a Christian state with Greek as its official language. It began as the eastern part of the Roman Empire but then took on an identity of its own. The empire once covered much of eastern Europe, the Middle East, and parts of North Africa.

### Who founded the Byzantine Empire?
The Byzantine Empire was founded by Roman emperor Constantine I who separated the Roman Empire into western and eastern parts. 

### Was Byzantine Greek or Roman?
The Byzantine Empire was both Roman and Greek. It started out more Roman but over the centuries it drifted further away from the traditions of the Western Roman Empire. The official language of the empire was Greek. 


## External Links

- [The History of Byzantium](https://thehistoryofbyzantium.com/)
- [Byzantium (ca. 330–1453) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/byza/hd_byza.htm)
- [List of Rulers of the Roman Empire | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roru/hd_roru.htm)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Cartwright, M. (2018, September 19). Byzantine Empire. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/)
### Chicago
Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, September 19, 2018. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).
### MLA
Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Empire." *World History Encyclopedia*, 19 Sep 2018, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine\_Empire/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Mark Cartwright](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/markzcartwright/ "User Page: Mark Cartwright"), published on 19 September 2018. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.