---
title: American Civil War: The Birthpangs of the United States
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2026-01-12
---

# American Civil War: The Birthpangs of the United States

_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_

The American Civil [War](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) (1861-1865) was the pivotal event in United States history and the largest armed conflict in the Western world following the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) and prior to the beginning of the First World War (1914). The central cause of the war was the institution of slavery, which had increasingly caused conflict between Southern states, which relied heavily on slave labor for their agrarian [economy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/economy/), and Northern states, which were heavily industrialized and had far less need for slaves.

The post-Civil War claim that the conflict was fought over states' rights, still repeated today, is untenable unless one amends the argument to read, "the Civil War was fought over states' rights to uphold the institution of slavery." Documents from slave-owning states giving their reason for secession from the Union in 1860 and 1861 repeatedly cite the need to uphold slavery, and earlier records and events support the claim that slavery was the foundational cause for all the other problems that had come to divide the North and South in the first half of the 19th century.

The war raged from 12 April 1861, when Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumter, to 9 April 1865, when Confederate general [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) surrendered to Union general Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House. Hostilities continued after April, however, and the final end of the war is often given as 26 May 1865, when Confederate Lt. General Simon B. Buckner surrendered the Trans-Mississippi Department.

The war ended slavery in the United States, abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment, destroyed the plantation system and agrarian economy of the South, further industrialized the North, and cost upwards of 650,000 lives. The Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) brought the warring states back into a cohesive Union, establishing the United States of America as it has been commonly understood since.

### Background

As noted, the American Civil War was fought over slavery even though, initially, President [Abraham](https://www.worldhistory.org/Abraham,_the_Patriarch/) Lincoln was only interested in preserving the Union and preventing the spread of slavery into territories that were not yet states. All the major events leading up to the war had to do with disputes between free states and slave states, and these include:

**Abolition of the [Transatlantic Slave Trade](https://www.worldhistory.org/Transatlantic_Slave_Trade/) in 1808** cut off the supply of slaves from outside the United States, although the demand by Southern states was high, resulting in illegal smuggling operations in the South and attempts to stop them by the federal government.

**The [Missouri Compromise](https://www.worldhistory.org/Missouri_Compromise/) of 1820** admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, continuing the balancing act of the government to placate Northern and Southern interests regarding slavery.

**[Nat Turner's Rebellion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Nat_Turner's_Rebellion/) of 1831:** The deadliest slave uprising in US history, Turner's rebellion encouraged widespread discussion of emancipation while also leading to harsher slave laws that were condemned by Northern abolitionists. Southern slaveholders blamed the abolitionists for the insurrection.

[ ![Nat Turner's Rebellion](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/20138.jpeg?v=1756668854-1741333545) Nat Turner's Rebellion Unknown Artist (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20138/nat-turners-rebellion/ "Nat Turner's Rebellion")**The Nullification Crisis of 1832:** South Carolina challenged federal tariffs and asserted states' rights to nullify federal laws and regulations, establishing a foundation later used to justify secession.

**Publication of [Frederick Douglass](https://www.worldhistory.org/Frederick_Douglass/)' Autobiography in 1845:** *Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass* became the bestselling slave narrative prior to the publication of *Uncle Tom's Cabin* by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. Both works, as well as others by former slaves, increased the momentum of the abolitionist movement.

**The [Fugitive Slave Act of 1850](https://www.worldhistory.org/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850/)** mandated that citizens of all states must aid in capturing and returning escaped slaves under threat of fine and/or imprisonment. The [law](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/law/) was highly unpopular in the North, causing resentment toward Southern slaveholders.

**The [Compromise of 1850](https://www.worldhistory.org/Compromise_of_1850/)** established the concept of popular sovereignty in territories, allowing the people to choose whether to become a slave or free state. The law admitted California as a free state but, at the same time, strengthened the Fugitive Slave Act.

**The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854** allowed popular sovereignty to decide whether the territories of Kansas and Nebraska would be free or slave states, leading to the violence of "[Bleeding Kansas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bleeding_Kansas/)" in which pro-slavery and free-staters fought each other, often considered a "dress rehearsal for the Civil War."

**The [Dred Scott Decision](https://www.worldhistory.org/Dred_Scott_Decision/) of 1857** ruled that Black people in America were not citizens, had no rights, and so could not bring lawsuits. It also ruled that Congress had no power to ban slavery in territories not yet part of the United States.

**[John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2772/john-browns-raid-on-harpers-ferry/) in 1859:** Abolitionist [John Brown](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Brown/) tried to incite a large-scale slave rebellion in Harpers Ferry, Virginia, in hopes of ending slavery in the United States.

**Election of Abraham Lincoln as President in 1860:** Lincoln's platform of controlling the spread of slavery westward alarmed Southerners, who saw this as a threat to their way of life. After Lincoln was elected, South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union.

[ ![Abraham Lincoln](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16743.jpg?v=1669680559-1670571939) Abraham Lincoln Anthony Berger (Copyright) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16743/abraham-lincoln/ "Abraham Lincoln")Lincoln's election ignited the Secession Crisis, in which seven states, fearing Lincoln would abolish slavery, seceded from the Union. These seven, in order, were:

- South Carolina (20 December 1860)
- Mississippi (9 January 1861)
- Florida (10 January 1861)
- Alabama (11 January 1861)
- Georgia (19 January 1861)
- Louisiana (26 January 1861)
- Texas (1 February and 23 February 1861)

Lincoln was inaugurated on 4 March 1861, and the Confederate forces under P. G. T. Beauregard fired on Fort Sumter on 12 April, starting the American Civil War. After this, four other states seceded:

- Virginia (17 April and 23 May 1861)
- Arkansas (6 May 1861)
- Tennessee (7 May and 8 June 1861)
- North Carolina (20 May 1861)

Texas, Virginia, and Tennessee have two dates indicating the decision to secede and the date the vote passed. These eleven became the Confederate States of America with [Jefferson Davis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Jefferson_Davis/) as their president.

### 1861

Between December 1860 and April 1861, tensions continued to rise, finally breaking into armed conflict when Confederate forces fired on the Union Fort Sumter just off the coast of South Carolina. Lincoln then called for a mobilization of militia to put down the insurrection.

[ ![Bombardment of Fort Sumter by Currier & Ives](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/21516.jpeg?v=1767820999-1767946408) Bombardment of Fort Sumter by Currier & Ives Currier & Ives (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21516/bombardment-of-fort-sumter-by-currier--ives/ "Bombardment of Fort Sumter by Currier & Ives")Winfield Scott, Commanding General of the US Army and hero of the [Mexican-American War](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mexican-American_War/), developed the "Anaconda Plan" to put down the rebellion: the South would be surrounded by Union land and naval forces, cutting them off from outside commerce, and then 'squeezed' until they surrendered. Although initially criticized, Scott's plan would remain in effect throughout the war.

The first land engagement was the skirmish known as the [Philippi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philippi/) Races ([Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Philippi, 3 June), a Union victory, but the first major clash was the First Battle of Bull Run/First Manassas (21 July), won by the Confederates, which ended Union hopes of a quick resolution to the conflict. Scott was too old to command in the field, and so Lincoln appointed Major General Irvin McDowell to command, who was then replaced by General George B. McClellan.

The Border States – Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, and, after 1863, West Virginia – which did not support "Lincoln's War" but rejected secession – tried to remain neutral but could not avoid the conflict as it progressed throughout 1861. Pro-slave and pro-free factions in these states fought their own internal wars while, at the same time, being periodically drawn into the wider engagement.

[Native American](https://www.worldhistory.org/Native_Peoples_of_North_America/) nations were also drawn into the war, which divided not only the larger bodies but also smaller bands. [Native Americans](https://www.worldhistory.org/Native_Peoples_of_North_America/), including the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole, fought for the Confederacy, hoping to win back their ancestral lands, but many different nations joined the war in 1861 on both sides and fought to the end.

American men and [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/) of all ages, and on both sides, as well as those from foreign countries, joined the war effort in 1861. Women not only served as nurses but also as spies, saboteurs, and some even went into battle disguised as men.

### 1862

In the Eastern theater of the war, early battles were inconclusive. McClellan launched his Peninsula Campaign in March of 1862 with the goal of capturing Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederacy, and ending the war quickly. He faced forces under General Joseph E. Johnston, whose clever tactics, combined with McClellan's hesitancy, thwarted the campaign.

Johnston was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines in May and was replaced by Robert E. Lee, whose more direct tactic of offense won the Seven Days' Battles (25 June to 1 July), ending the campaign. Although many of these battles were actually inconclusive, Lee's tactics proved superior, repelling McClellan's advances until the latter gave up and withdrew. Lee's commanders, James Longstreet and [Stonewall Jackson](https://www.worldhistory.org/Stonewall_Jackson/), played a significant role in stopping McClellan's advance.

[ ![Robert E. Lee, 1863](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/20766.png?v=1753995936-1754379672) Robert E. Lee, 1863 Unknown Photographer (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20766/robert-e-lee-1863/ "Robert E. Lee, 1863")The Eastern theater also saw the Battle of Hampton Roads in Virginia (8-9 March), also known as the Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimack, the first naval battle of ironclad warships. Although inconclusive, it marked a turning point in naval [warfare](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/).

In the Western theater, Ulysses S. Grant took Fort Henry (6 February) and then Fort Donelson (16 February), demanding unconditional surrender and gaining the nickname "Unconditional Surrender Grant." Grant's victories forced Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest to retreat, leaving central Tennessee open to Union control and cutting off essential supplies to the Confederacy.

Grant also won the Battle of Shiloh (6-7 April) in Hardin County, Tennessee in which Confederate General [Albert Sidney Johnston](https://www.worldhistory.org/Albert_Sidney_Johnston/) was killed and replaced by P.G.T. Beauregard. Shiloh was the costliest victory of the Civil War until the Battle of Antietam/Battle of Sharpsburg in Maryland on 17 September, the single bloodiest day of the entire war. The Union strategic victory at Antietam (the battle was inconclusive, but the Confederates left the field) enabled Lincoln to issue the preliminary draft of the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves held within the Confederate States.

McClellan was replaced by General Ambrose Burnside, who proved to be as incompetent overall as he had been at Antietam, where his refusal to consider options in crossing what became known as "Burnside's Bridge" added significantly to Union casualties. After the costly Union defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg in Virginia (11-15 December), Burnside was replaced by Major General Joseph Hooker.

[ ![Burnside's Bridge at Antietam Battlefield](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/21515.jpeg?v=1767820711-1767947392) Burnside's Bridge at Antietam Battlefield Zeete (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21515/burnsides-bridge-at-antietam-battlefield/ "Burnside's Bridge at Antietam Battlefield")### 1863

On 1 January 1863, Lincoln formally issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which, although only freeing slaves in the states in rebellion, opened enlistment in the Union army to free Blacks of the North. The first Black regiment had been organized in September 1862, but now there was widespread enlistment, encouraged by high-profile figures including [Harriet Tubman](https://www.worldhistory.org/Harriet_Tubman/) and Frederick Douglass. In February 1863, the famous 54th Massachusetts Regiment was formed, one of the earliest African American regiments to see action in the war and probably best known today from the movie *Glory* (1989), featuring their doomed assault on Fort Wagner in July 1863.

In March, Lincoln signed the Conscription Act, the first military draft in American history, adding many more soldiers to the Union effort. General Hooker proved himself an able commander until the Battle of Chancellorsville in Virginia (30 April to 6 May), during which General Lee divided his troops for a complete victory. Even so, this cost Lee one of his greatest generals when Stonewall Jackson was accidentally shot by his own men, mistaking his entourage for a Union advance. Jackson was severely wounded and later died of pneumonia on 10 May.

[ ![Battle of Chancellorsville](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/20783.png?v=1754071873-1754553347) Battle of Chancellorsville Kurz and Allison (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20783/battle-of-chancellorsville/ "Battle of Chancellorsville")In the Western theater of the war, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman continued the Vicksburg Campaign that had begun on 29 December 1862. The goal was to capture the [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of Vicksburg, which controlled the last Confederate-held section of the Mississippi River. Grant's masterful campaign finally took Vicksburg on 4 July, cutting off the Eastern theater of the Confederacy from the West.

After Chancellorsville, Hooker was replaced by Major General George Meade, who was in command when Lee launched his invasion of the North. The two armies met at the Battle of Gettysburg (1-3 July), the war's bloodiest conflict, costing over 50,000 lives in three days. On the third day, Confederate General George Pickett led an assault on the Union center, known as Pickett's Charge, which is considered the high-water [mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Mark/) of the Confederacy. The charge was broken, and Lee was defeated. Meade's victory at Gettysburg marked a turning point in the war, especially coupled with Grant's success at Vicksburg the next day.

[ ![Battle of Gettysburg](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/19571.jpeg?v=1729241394-1729241426) Battle of Gettysburg Thule de Thulstrup / Adam Cuerden (CC BY) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19571/battle-of-gettysburg/ "Battle of Gettysburg")Still, the war raged on as Union forces pressed an offensive to take the Confederate states by storm. The Battle of Chickamauga (18 to 20 September) was the conclusion of Union Major General William Rosecrans' attempt to break the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Confederate General Braxton Bragg. Chickamauga was a Confederate victory, despite the heroic defense mounted by Union Major General George Henry Thomas, and the costliest to both sides in the Western theater and second only to Gettysburg in the number of casualties in a single battle in the entire war.

Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg Address on 19 November, rededicating the nation to the cause of union, but the war continued on into another year

### 1864

The year began with skirmishes until February, when Union General Sherman began his Meridian Campaign in Mississippi. On 17 February, the Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley sank the USS *Housatonic*. Although the Hunley also sank at the same time, taking its entire crew with it, the attack marked the first time a submarine sank a warship, changing the face of naval warfare.

On 9 March, Grant was commissioned Lieutenant General and General-in-Chief of the US Army, and in May began his [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/) (also known as the Wilderness Campaign, May-June 1864). The campaign began with the [Battle of the Wilderness](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2843/battle-of-the-wilderness/) (5-6 May), which, though inconclusive, cost Lee men he could not spare. The Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse (8-21 May) followed, and while this was being fought, Union Major General Philip Sheridan drove his cavalry against that of [J. E. B. Stuart](https://www.worldhistory.org/J._E._B._Stuart/), who was mortally wounded at the [Battle of Yellow Tavern](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2854/battle-of-yellow-tavern/) (11 May) and died the next day.

The Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse was also inconclusive, but Grant refused to retreat, despite serious casualties. Every time he engaged with Lee, no matter the outcome, he regrouped and continued the campaign, even after a serious defeat at the [Battle of Cold Harbor](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2849/battle-of-cold-harbor/) (31 May to 12 June).

[ ![Battle of Cold Harbor](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/21411.png?v=1766314924-1765152048) Battle of Cold Harbor Kurz & Allison (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21411/battle-of-cold-harbor/ "Battle of Cold Harbor")In June, Union army engineers built a pontoon bridge across the James River, stretching 2,200 feet (670 m), the longest pontoon bridge of the war, enabling troops to support the Richmond-Petersburg Campaign (9 June 1864 to 25 March 1865), which included the [Siege of Petersburg](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2865/siege-of-petersburg/), a city vital to Confederate interests.

Upon Grant's promotion, General Sherman had taken his place in the Western theater and, coordinating with Grant, pursued a policy of total war, concluding that the conflict could only be won by destroying the Confederacy's ability to wage war. Lee was trapped at Petersburg, and Grant was engaged holding him there, and so, on 15 November, Sherman launched his Savanah Campaign, better known as [Sherman's March to the Sea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Sherman's_March_to_the_Sea/).

Following a "scorched earth" policy of destroying not only military facilities but also industries and civilian farms and homes, Sherman devastated Georgia between 15 November and 21 December and then began the Carolinas Campaign and did the same to South Carolina and, to a lesser degree, North Carolina. Earlier, in October, General Sheridan had conducted his successful campaign in the Shenandoah Valley, defeating Confederate Major General Jubal A. Early and, following Sherman's example, destroying any assets in the region that might enable the Confederacy in any way.

[ ![Sherman's March to the Sea](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/21164.jpg?v=1765353849-1760827413) Sherman's March to the Sea Felix Octavius Carr Darley & Alexander Hay Ritchie (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/21164/shermans-march-to-the-sea/ "Sherman's March to the Sea")The Confederacy's great hope at this point was that Lincoln would lose the presidential election of 1864 and the incoming president would end the war. Lincoln, however, won the election on 8 November 1864, and the war continued on into the New Year, even though a Confederate victory at this point must have been impossible for anyone to imagine.

### 1865

The early months of 1865 began as before, with more battles, but Southern hope was dissipating quickly. Sheridan defeated General Pickett at the Battle of Five Forks in Virginia on 1 April, seizing a vital supply line and forcing Lee to abandon Petersburg and Richmond to Union forces. Richmond was taken on 2-3 April by the Union XXV Corps, composed of African American troops.

Lee retreated to Appomattox Station, where he intended to resupply and resume hostilities, but Grant surrounded and defeated him at Appomattox Court House. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on 9 April 1865, and, although hostilities continued, the war was over. The final engagement of the American Civil War was the Battle of Palmito Ranch in Texas on 13 May 1865, and the war's finish is now dated to 26 May 1865 when the Trans-Mississippi Department surrendered.

[ ![Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/20757.jpg?v=1753973588-1754379521) Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Thomas Nast (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/20757/lee-surrenders-to-grant-at-appomattox/ "Lee Surrenders to Grant at Appomattox")On 19 June 1865, Major General Gordon Granger arrived in Texas to deliver General Order No. 3, announcing emancipation to the slaves the Confederate States had sent there to keep them from being seized by Union forces. This event is now celebrated as [Juneteenth](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2239/history-of-juneteenth/).

### Conclusion

Prior to the American Civil War, people in the United States identified themselves by their state. One was a Virginian, a New Yorker, a Texan, a Kansan; after the Civil War, people began to refer to themselves as "American" in a way they never had before.

Even though the war cost thousands of lives – many from disease rather than battle – and included in that [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) toll the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln – it ultimately drew the states together into exactly the kind of union Lincoln envisioned and encouraged people to fight to defend. The Civil War, far more than the [American Revolution](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Revolution/), gave birth to the United States of America.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Abbott, K. *Liar, Temptress, Soldier, Spy: Four Women Undercover in the Civil War.* Harper Perennial, 2015.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0062092901/)
- [Bonekemper III, E. H. *Myth of the Lost Cause: Why the South Fought the Civil War and Why the North Won.* Regnery History, 2022.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/168451360X/)
- [Bradford, N. *Battles and Leaders of the Civil War.* Meridian Press, 1989.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/1557285659/)
- [Catton, B. *The Civil War.* Mariner Books, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B008CM9MDE/)
- [Foote, S. *The Civil War: A Narrative.* Vintage Books, 1986.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0394749138/)
- [McPherson, J. M. *Battle Cry of Freedom.* Oxford University Press, 2003.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/019516895X/)
- [Oates, S. B. *The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion.* Harper Perennial, 2016.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0062656554/)
- [Wheeler, R. & Catton, B. *Voices of the Civil War.* Meridian Press, 1986.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0806543388/)

## About the Author

Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)

## Timeline

- **5 Mar 1820 CE**: Congress approves the [Missouri Compromise](https://www.worldhistory.org/Missouri_Compromise/), setting the boundary between 'free' and 'slave' states at the 36°30′ parallel (except Missouri).
- **Sep 1850 CE**: The [Compromise of 1850](https://www.worldhistory.org/Compromise_of_1850/) admits California as a 'free state' and establishes popular sovereignty in the other territories of the Mexican Cession.
- **12 Apr 1861 CE**: The [American Civil War](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/) begins when Confederate forces fire on the Union Fort Sumter.
- **20 Apr 1861 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) resigns from the US Army as Virginia secedes from the Union.
- **1 Jun 1862 CE**: [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) is put in command of the Army of Northern Virginia.
- **25 Jun 1862 CE - 1 Jul 1862 CE**: The Seven Days' Battles; Lee launches a counteroffensive against McClellan, driving him away from Richmond.
- **28 Aug 1862 CE - 30 Aug 1862 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Second Manassas (aka Second Battle of Bull Run) results in a Confederate victory.
- **17 Sep 1862 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Antietam; the culmination of [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)'s first invasion of the North, resulting in 22,000 casualties. After the battle, Lee withdraws back across the Potomac River.
- **30 Apr 1863 CE - 6 May 1863 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Chancellorsville; [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) wins another decisive victory.
- **1 Jul 1863 CE - 3 Jul 1863 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Gettysburg; [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/)'s second invasion of the North ends in a Southern defeat.
- **9 Mar 1864 CE**: Ulysses S. Grant is made general-in-chief of all Union armies.
- **4 May 1864 CE**: The Army of the Potomac crosses the Rapidan River, beginning the [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/).
- **4 May 1864 CE - 12 Jun 1864 CE**: The [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/) - Grant and Lee's armies struggle in some of the hardest fighting of the [American Civil War](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/).
- **5 May 1864 CE - 6 May 1864 CE**: The [Battle of the Wilderness](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2843/battle-of-the-wilderness/) results in a stalemate.
- **7 May 1864 CE**: Despite the horrendous losses he sustained at the Wilderness, Grant continues pressing south and heads toward Spotsylvania.
- **7 May 1864 CE**: William Tecumseh Sherman begins his [Atlanta Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Atlanta_Campaign/).
- **8 May 1864 CE - 21 May 1864 CE**: [Battle of Spotsylvania Court House](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2844/battle-of-spotsylvania-court-house/).
- **11 May 1864 CE**: [Battle of Yellow Tavern](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2854/battle-of-yellow-tavern/); [J. E. B. Stuart](https://www.worldhistory.org/J._E._B._Stuart/) is mortally wounded.
- **23 May 1864 CE - 26 May 1864 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of North Anna; Union and Confederate armies try to maneuver around one another as they take parallel routes toward Cold Harbor.
- **31 May 1864 CE - 12 Jun 1864 CE**: [Battle of Cold Harbor](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2849/battle-of-cold-harbor/).
- **12 Jun 1864 CE**: Grant abandons his entrenchments at Cold Harbor and heads for the James River. End of the [Overland Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Overland_Campaign/).
- **14 Jun 1864 CE**: Confederate General [Leonidas](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Leonidas/) Polk is killed in action near Marietta, Georgia.
- **16 Jul 1864 CE**: Joseph E. Johnston is removed from command of the Confederate Army of Tennessee; he is replaced by [John Bell Hood](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Bell_Hood/).
- **18 Jul 1864 CE**: Sherman begins to lay siege to Atlanta, Georgia.
- **22 Jul 1864 CE**: [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Atlanta; Union victory. Union Major General James B. McPherson is killed.
- **2 Sep 1864 CE**: Atlanta is occupied by Union soldiers; end of the [Atlanta Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Atlanta_Campaign/).
- **29 Sep 1864 CE**: Gen. [John Bell Hood](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Bell_Hood/) and the 40,000-man Army of Tennessee crosses the Chattahoochee River, beginning the [Franklin-Nashville Campaign](https://www.worldhistory.org/Franklin-Nashville_Campaign/).
- **13 Nov 1864 CE - 20 Nov 1864 CE**: Gen. [John Bell Hood](https://www.worldhistory.org/John_Bell_Hood/) crosses the Tennessee River, beginning his invasion of Tennessee.
- **15 Nov 1864 CE**: US Major General William T. Sherman burns Atlanta, begins his infamous 'March to the Sea'.
- **23 Nov 1864 CE**: Sherman captures Milledgeville, the state capital of Georgia.
- **30 Nov 1864 CE**: [Battle of Franklin](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2813/battle-of-franklin/); the Confederate assault is repulsed with 6,000 casualties, including 14 generals. One of the worst Confederate defeats of the [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/).
- **15 Dec 1864 CE - 16 Dec 1864 CE**: [Battle of Nashville](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2816/battle-of-nashville/); the Confederate Army of Tennessee is decisively defeated, ceases to exist as an effective fighting force.
- **21 Dec 1864 CE**: Sherman captures Savannah, Georgia, ending his 'March to the Sea'.
- **9 Apr 1865 CE**: General [Robert E. Lee](https://www.worldhistory.org/Robert_E._Lee/) surrenders to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House.

## Questions & Answers

### What caused the American Civil War?
The American Civil War was caused by slavery. The issue of slavery had been dividing the nation for over half a century before tensions finally led to war. 

### When did the American Civil War begin and end? 
The American Civil War began on 12 April 1861 and ended on 9 April 1865, although hostilities continued after April, and the official end of the Civil War is now considered to be 26 May 1865. 

### Who won the American Civil War and why?
The Union Army of the United States won the American Civil War, defeating the Confederate States of America between 1861 and 1865. The Union won through President Lincoln's leadership, General Grant's strategy, greater numbers of soldiers, greater industrial strength, and a better economy that could support a war. 

### What was the deadliest war in US history?
The American Civil War is the deadliest war in US history, with casualties numbering upwards of 650,000 and some estimates placing the toll at 750,000 or more. There were more American lives lost in the Civil War than in any other military engagement in its history. 


## External Links

- [10 Facts: What Everyone Should Know About the Civil War | American Battlefield Trust](https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/10-facts-what-everyone-should-know-about-civil-war?ms=googlegrant{{amp}}gad_source=1{{amp}}gad_campaignid=1432490795{{amp}}gbraid=0AAAAAD6pCMjXuHLwdSFbVhiVfHLXtrzuH{{amp}}gclid=Cj0KCQiApfjKBhC0ARIsAMiR_IvRolfth_mlblOpYOpWXAg7rs0jrzEiAOaZnNlXiYRLA3KSqEYP_w0aAvqfEALw_wcB)
- [Myths & Misunderstandings: What Caused the Civil War Archives- American Civil War Museum](https://acwm.org/blog/myths-misunderstandings-what-caused-civil-war/)
- [What really started the American Civil War? | Colorado State University](https://source.colostate.edu/what-really-started-the-american-civil-war/)
- [The American Civil War | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History](https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/american-civil-war)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, J. J. (2026, January 12). American Civil War: The Birthpangs of the United States. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/American\_Civil\_War/](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/)
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "American Civil War: The Birthpangs of the United States." *World History Encyclopedia*, January 12, 2026. [https://www.worldhistory.org/American\_Civil\_War/](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/).
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "American Civil War: The Birthpangs of the United States." *World History Encyclopedia*, 12 Jan 2026, [https://www.worldhistory.org/American\_Civil\_War/](https://www.worldhistory.org/American_Civil_War/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 12 January 2026. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.