---
title: Alexander the Great
author: Joshua J. Mark
source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/
format: machine-readable-alternate
license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)
updated: 2025-02-04
---

# Alexander the Great

_Authored by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/)_

[Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) III of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/), better known as Alexander the Great (l. 21 July 356 BCE – 10 or 11 June 323 BCE, r. 336-323 BCE), was the son of King [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) (r. 359-336 BCE) who became king upon his father's [death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) in 336 BCE and then conquered most of the known world of his day.

He is known as 'the great' both for his military genius and his diplomatic skills in handling the various populaces of the regions he conquered. He is further recognized for spreading [Greek culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Greek_Culture/), language, and thought from [Greece](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) throughout [Asia Minor](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/), [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/), and [Mesopotamia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Mesopotamia/) to [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/) and thus initiating the era of the [Hellenistic Period](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenistic_Period/) (323-31 BCE) during which four of his generals (his successors, known as the Diadochi), in between their wars for supremacy, continued his policies of integrating [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) ([Hellenistic](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hellenic_World/)) [culture](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/culture/) with that of the [Near East](https://www.worldhistory.org/Near_East/). He died of unknown causes in 323 BCE without clearly naming a successor (or, according to some accounts, his choice of the commander [Perdiccas](https://www.worldhistory.org/Perdiccas/) was ignored) and the [empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/empire/) he built was divided among the Diadochi.

Alexander's campaigns became legendary after his death, influencing the tactics and careers of later Greek and [Roman](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Roman/) generals, as well as inspiring numerous biographies attributing to him a [god](https://www.worldhistory.org/God/)-like status. Modern day historians have generally taken a more critical approach to his life and career than earlier accounts, as evidenced by criticism of his destruction of [Persepolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/persepolis/) and treatment of the citizens of [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/), but the general consensus regarding his legacy among Western scholars, anyway, remains largely positive and he remains one of the most popular and recognizable figures in world history.[ ![Alexander the Great (Artistic Facial Reconstruction)](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/13337.jpeg?v=1776218885) Alexander the Great (Artistic Facial Reconstruction) Arienne King (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/13337/alexander-the-great-artistic-facial-reconstruction/ "Alexander the Great (Artistic Facial Reconstruction)")

### Alexander's Youth

When Alexander was young, he was taught to fight and ride by [Leonidas](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Leonidas/) of Epirus, a relative of his mother [Olympias](https://www.worldhistory.org/Olympias/), as well as to endure hardships such as forced marches. His father, Philip, was interested in cultivating a refined future king and so hired [Lysimachus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lysimachus/) of Acarnania to teach the boy reading, [writing](https://www.worldhistory.org/writing/), and to play the [lyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Lyre/). This tutelage would instill in Alexander a lifelong love of reading and [music](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Music/). At the age of 13 or 14, Alexander was introduced to the Greek philosopher [Aristotle](https://www.worldhistory.org/aristotle/) (l. 384-322 BCE) whom Philip hired as a private tutor. He would study with Aristotle until the age of 16, and the two are said to have remained in correspondence throughout Alexander's later campaigns, although evidence of this is anecdotal.

Aristotle's influence directly bore upon Alexander's later dealings with the people he conquered, in that Alexander never forced the culture of Greece upon the inhabitants of the various regions but merely introduced it in the same way Aristotle used to teach his students. The influence of Leonidas may be seen in Alexander's lifelong resilience and physical stamina as well as in his skill with horses. Alexander is said to have tamed the 'untamable' [Bucephalus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bucephalus/) when he was only 11 or 12 years old.

While his various tutors' influences certainly had a profound effect upon him, Alexander seemed destined for greatness from birth. He had, first of all, a father whose accomplishments laid a firm foundation for his later success. The historian [Diodorus Siculus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Diodorus_Siculus/) observes:

> During the twenty-four years of his reign as King of Macedonia, in which he started with the slenderest resources, Philip built his own kingdom up into the greatest power in [Europe](https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/)...He projected the overthrow of the [Persian Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Persian_Empire/), landed forces in Asia and was in the act of liberating the [Hellenic](https://www.worldhistory.org/greece/) communities when he was interrupted by Fate - in spite of which, he bequeathed a military establishment of such size and quality that his son Alexander was enabled to overthrow the Persian Empire without requiring the assistance of allies. These achievements were not the work of Fortune but of his own force of character, for this king stands out above all others for his military acumen, personal courage and intellectual brilliance. (Book XVI.ch.1)

While it is clear that his father had a great impact on him, Alexander himself chose to see his success as ordained by divine forces. He called himself the son of [Zeus](https://www.worldhistory.org/zeus/), and so claimed the status of a demigod, linking his bloodline to his two favorite heroes of antiquity, [Achilles](https://www.worldhistory.org/achilles/) and [Hercules](https://www.worldhistory.org/hercules/), and modeling his behavior after theirs. This belief in his divinity was instilled in him by Olympias who also told him that his was a virgin birth as she had been miraculously impregnated by Zeus himself. His birth was associated with great signs and wonders, such as a bright star gleaming over Macedonia that night and the destruction of the [Temple of Artemis at Ephesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Temple_of_Artemis_at_Ephesus/). [Plutarch](https://www.worldhistory.org/plutarch/) writes:

> Alexander was born the sixth of Hecatombaeon, which month the Macedonians call Lous, the same day that the [temple](https://www.worldhistory.org/temple/) of [Diana](https://www.worldhistory.org/diana/) at [Ephesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/ephesos/) was burnt; which Hegesias of Magnesia makes the occasion of a conceit, frigid enough to have stopped the conflagration. The temple, he says, took fire and was burnt while its mistress was absent, assisting at the birth of Alexander. And all the Eastern soothsayers who happened to be then at [Ephesus](https://www.worldhistory.org/ephesos/), looking upon the ruin of this temple to be the forerunner of some other calamity, ran about the town, beating their faces, and crying that this day had brought forth something that would prove fatal and destructive to all Asia. (Plutarch, *Life of Alexander,* I)

Though his birth is well documented by historians, there is little information on his youth, aside from tales of his precociousness (he allegedly interviewed visiting dignitaries about the boundaries and strengths of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/) when he was seven years old), his tutors, and his childhood friends. Alexander's friends [Cassander](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cassander/) (l.c. 355-297 BCE), [Ptolemy](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ptolemy/) (l.c. 367-282 BCE), and [Hephaestion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hephaestion/) (l.c. 356-324 BCE) would become his lifelong companions and generals in his army.

Callisthenes (l.c. 360-327 BCE), another friend, was Aristotle's great-nephew, and came to the Macedonian court with the philosopher. He would become court historian and follow Alexander on campaign. Hephaestion remained his best and dearest friend throughout his life and second-in-command of the army. Of Alexander's youth, the historian Worthington writes that Alexander "would have been educated at home, as was the custom in Macedonia, and he would have grown used to seeing (and then participating in) the drinking contests that were part of Macedonian court life" but that, aside from that, "we know surprisingly little about Alexander's boyhood" (33).

### Chaeronea & the Early Campaigns

Alexander's military prowess was first noted at the [Battle of Chaeronea](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Chaeronea/) in 338 BCE. Although only 18 years old, he helped turn the tide of [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) in the decisive Macedonian victory which defeated the Greek allied [city](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/)-states. When [Philip II](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Philip_II/) was assassinated in 336 BCE, Alexander assumed the throne, and with the Greek city-states now united under Macedonian rule following Chaeronea, embarked on the great campaign his father had been planning: the [conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the mighty Persian Empire. Worthington states:

> [Homer](https://www.worldhistory.org/homer/) was Alexander's [bible](https://www.worldhistory.org/bible/) and he took Aristotle's edition with him to Asia...During his campaigns Alexander was always intent on finding out everything he could about the areas through which he passed. He took with him an entourage of scientists to record and analyse this information, from botany, biology, zoology and meteorology, to topography. His desire to learn, and to have information recorded as scientifically as possible, probably stemmed from Aristotle's teachings and enthusiasm. (34-35)

With a Macedonian army of 32,000 infantry and 5,100 cavalry, Alexander crossed over to Asia Minor in 334 BCE to begin his conquest of the [Achaemenid](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Achaemenid/) Persian Empire, defeating the Persian army led by satraps at the Battle of [Granicus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_the_Granicus/) in May. He then "liberated" (as he phrased his conquest) the [cities](https://www.worldhistory.org/city/) of [Sardis](https://www.worldhistory.org/sardis/) and Ephesus from Persian rule that same year before moving on to others in Asia Minor. At Ephesus, he offered to rebuild the Temple of [Artemis](https://www.worldhistory.org/artemis/), which had been destroyed by arson on the night of his birth, but the city refused his gesture. In 333 BCE, Alexander and his troops defeated the larger force of King [Darius](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/darius/) III (r. 336-330 BCE) of Persia at the Battle of Issos. Alexander went on to sack the Phoenician cities of [Baalbek](https://www.worldhistory.org/Baalbek/) and [Sidon](https://www.worldhistory.org/sidon/) (which had surrendered) in 332 BCE and then lay siege to the island city of Tyre.

So determined was he to [conquer](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) the ancient city of Tyre that he built a causeway from the mainland to the island on which to mount his siege engines. This causeway, in time, collected silt and earth and is the reason why Tyre is a part of the mainland in Lebanon today. For their stubborn resistance, the inhabitants of the city were slaughtered and the survivors sold into slavery. His policy regarding the citizens of Tyre is cited by historians, ancient and modern, as a prime example of his ruthlessness.

In 331 BCE, he conquered Egypt where he founded the city of [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/). At the Oracle of Siwa, in the eponymous [Egyptian](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Egyptian/) oasis, he was proclaimed a son of the god Zeus-Ammon.

[ ![Alexander the Great, Bronze Head](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/1238.jpg?v=1765565291) Alexander the Great, Bronze Head Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/1238/alexander-the-great-bronze-head/ "Alexander the Great, Bronze Head")Though he had conquered Egypt, Alexander was not interested in imposing his own ideas of truth, [religion](https://www.worldhistory.org/religion/), or behavior upon the people as long as they willingly kept the supply lines open to feed and equip his troops (an important aspect of his ability to rule vast areas, which was to be neglected by his successors). This does not mean, however, that he did not ruthlessly suppress uprisings or hesitate to viciously annihilate those who opposed him. After designing the plan for the city of Alexandria, he left Egypt for [Syria](https://www.worldhistory.org/syria/) and northern Mesopotamia to pursue further campaigns against Persia.

### The Persian Campaigns

In 331 BCE, Alexander met King Darius III again on the battlefield at [Gaugamela](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Gaugamela/) (also called the Battle of Arbela), where, once again facing overwhelming numbers, he decisively defeated Darius III who fled the field. Alexander then moved on to take [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/) and [Susa](https://www.worldhistory.org/susa/) which surrendered unconditionally without resistance. In the winter of 330, Alexander marched toward Persepolis, meeting resistance at the Battle of the Persian Gates defended by the hero Ariobarzanes (l. 386-330 BCE) and his sister Youtab Aryobarzan (d. 330 BCE) at the head of the Persian troops. Alexander defeated this force and took Persepolis, which he then burned.

According to the ancient historian Diodorus Siculus (and other ancient sources), he started the fire which destroyed the main [palace](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/palace/) and most of the city as revenge for the burning of the [Acropolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/Acropolis/) in [Xerxes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Xerxes_I/)' Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. This act was said to be instigated during a drunken party by Thais, the Athenian lover of the general Ptolemy, claiming it would be apt revenge for the city to be burnt "by [women](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/women/)'s hands", and she is said to have thrown her torch right after Alexander threw the first.

In the summer of 330 BCE, Darius III was assassinated by his own general and cousin Bessus, an act which Alexander was said to deplore. Darius III's corpse was treated with the greatest respect, as were the surviving members of his family. Alexander proclaimed himself the King of Asia and continued on with his conquest, marching into the region of modern-day Afghanistan. In 329 BCE, he founded the city of Alexandria-Eschate on the [Iaxartes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Iaxartes/) River, destroyed the city of Cyropolis, and defeated the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/) at the northern borders of the empire. Between fall of 330 BCE and spring of 327 BCE, he campaigned against [Bactria](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bactria/) and [Sogdiana](https://www.worldhistory.org/sogdiana/), hard-fought battles which he won as he had every engagement thus far. Bessus was captured and executed for his treachery against his former king to send the message that disloyalty of that kind would never be rewarded.

Alexander founded many cities bearing his name during this time to further his public image not only as a "liberator" but as a god and adopted the title *Shahanshah* (King of Kings) used by the rulers of the First Persian Empire. In keeping with this status, Alexander introduced the Persian custom of *proskynesis* to the army, forcing those who addressed him to first kneel and kiss his hand.

The Macedonian troops became progressively uncomfortable with Alexander's apparent deification and adoption of Persian customs. Assassination plots were hatched (notably in 327 BCE) only to be revealed and the conspirators executed, even if they were old friends. Callisthenes became one of these when he was implicated in a plot. Cleitus, the elder statesman who had saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus, would doom himself in a similar way. In c. 327 BCE Alexander would dispose of both Callisthenes and Cleitus, in separate incidents, for treason and questioning his authority, respectively.

Alexander's habit of drinking to excess was well known, and certainly in the case of Cleitus' death, significantly influenced the murder. Both Cleitus and Callisthenes had become quite vocal in their criticism of Alexander's adoption of Persian customs. Though capable of great diplomacy and skill in dealing with conquered peoples and their rulers, Alexander was not known for tolerating personal opinions which conflicted with his own, and this intolerance was exacerbated by drinking. Cleitus' death was swift, through a javelin Alexander hurled at him, while Callisthenes was imprisoned and died in confinement.

[ ![Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/130.gif?v=1765548612) Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests US Military Academy (Public Domain) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/130/map-of-alexander-the-greats-conquests/ "Map of Alexander the Great's Conquests")### India & Mutiny

In 327 BCE, with the Persian Empire firmly under his control and newly married to the Bactrian noblewoman Roxana (l. c. 340 to c. 310 BCE), Alexander turned his attention to India. Having heard of the exploits of the great Macedonian general, the Indian King Omphis of [Taxila](https://www.worldhistory.org/taxila/) submitted to his authority without a fight, but the Aspasioi and Assakenoi tribes strongly resisted. In battles throughout 327 BCE and into 326 BCE, Alexander subdued these tribes, finally meeting King Porus of Paurava at the Battle of the Hydaspes River in 326 BCE.

Porus charged Alexander's forces with elephants and fought so bravely with his troops that, after defeating Porus, Alexander installed him as ruler of a larger region than he had previously held. Alexander's horse Bucephalus was killed in this battle, and Alexander named one of the two cities he founded after the battle 'Bucephala' after him.

Alexander intended to march on and cross the River [Ganges](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ganges/) toward further conquests, but his troops, worn out by the hard-fought battle with Porus (in which, according to [Arrian](https://www.worldhistory.org/Arrian/), Alexander lost 1000 men), mutinied in 326 BCE and refused to go further. Alexander tried to persuade his men to press on but, failing to win them over, finally assented to their wishes. He split his army in two, sending half back to Susa by sea under the command of Admiral Nearchus through the Persian Gulf, and marching the other half on through the Gedrosian Desert in 325 BCE, almost a full year after his troops had mutinied.

His reasoning behind this decision, both the delay in withdrawal after the mutiny and the form it finally took, is still unclear and debated by historians. Even though he had abandoned his conquest of India, he still paused on his march to subdue those hostile tribes he encountered along the way. The harsh terrain of the desert, and the military engagements, took a great toll on his troops, and by the time they reached Susa in 324 BCE, Alexander had sustained considerable losses.

Upon his return, he found that many of the satraps he had entrusted with rule had abused their power and so executed them as well as those who had vandalized the [tomb](https://www.worldhistory.org/tomb/) of [Cyrus the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cyrus_the_Great/) (r. c. 550-530 BCE) at the old capital city of [Pasargadae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pasargadae/). He ordered the ancient capital and tomb to be restored and took other measures to integrate his army with the people of the region and merge the cultures of Persia and Macedonia.

Alexander held a mass marriage service at Susa in 324 BCE at which he married members of his senior staff to Persian princesses and noblewomen while he himself married a daughter of Darius III to further identify himself with Persian royalty. Many of his troops objected to this cultural merger and increasingly criticized his adoption of Persian dress and manners which he had affected since 329 BCE. They further objected to the promotion of Persians over Macedonians in the army and to Alexander's order merging Persian and Macedonian units. Alexander responded by appointing Persians to prominent positions in the army and awarded traditional Macedonian titles and honors to Persian units.

His troops backed down and submitted to Alexander's wishes, and in a gesture of goodwill, he returned the titles to the Macedonians and ordered a great communal feast at which he dined and drank with the army. He had already dropped the custom of *proskynesis* in deference to his men but continued to comport himself as a Persian, rather than Macedonian, king.

At about this time, in 324 BCE, his lifelong friend, possibly his lover, and his second-in-command, Hephaestion, died from a fever, though some reports suggest he may have been poisoned. The claim that Alexander was homosexual or bisexual is supported by biographies written after his death and Hephaestion is routinely noted as his lover as well as his best friend. Historians' accounts of Alexander's response to this event universally agree that his grief was insupportable.

Plutarch claims that Alexander slaughtered the Cossaeans of a neighboring town as a sacrifice to his friend, and Arrian writes that he had Hephaestion's doctor executed for failing to cure him. The manes and tails of the horses were cut as a sign of mourning, and Alexander refused to promote another to Hephaestion's position as commander of the cavalry. He abstained from food and drink and declared a period of mourning throughout his empire and funeral rites usually reserved for a king.

### Alexander's Death

While still processing the grief of Hephaestion's death, Alexander returned to Babylon in 323 BCE with plans for expanding his empire but he would never realize them. He died at Babylon at the age of 32 on 10 or 11 June 323 BCE after suffering ten days of high fever. Theories concerning his cause of death have ranged from poisoning to malaria to meningitis to bacterial infection from drinking contaminated water (among others).

Plutarch says that, 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained his fleet admiral Nearcus and his friend Medius of Larissa with a long bout of drinking, after which he fell into a fever from which he never recovered. When he was asked who should succeed him, Alexander said, “the strongest”, which answer led to his empire being divided between four of his generals: Cassander, Ptolemy, [Antigonus](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Antigonus/), and Seleucus (known as the Diadochi or 'successors').

[ ![Alexander Sarcophagus (detail)](https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2664.jpg?v=1765565300) Alexander Sarcophagus (detail) Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA) ](https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2664/alexander-sarcophagus-detail/ "Alexander Sarcophagus (detail)")Plutarch and Arrian, however, claim he passed his reign to Perdiccas, the friend of Hephaistion with whom Alexander had carried their friend's body to his funeral in Babylon. Perdiccas was also Alexander's friend as well as his bodyguard and fellow cavalryman, and it would make sense, considering Alexander's habit of rewarding those he was close to with favors, that he would choose Perdiccas over others. However that may be, following Alexander's death, the generals ignored his wishes and Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BCE.

### The Diadochi

His longtime comrade, Cassander, would order the execution of Alexander's wife Roxana, Alexander's son by her, and Alexander's mother Olympias to consolidate his power as the new King of Macedonia (a title he would later lose to [Antigonus I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Antigonus_I/) and his heirs). [Ptolemy I](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemy_I/) is said to have stolen Alexander's corpse as it was en route to Macedon and spirited it away to Egypt in hope of securing the prophecy that the land in which it was laid to rest would be prosperous and unconquerable. He would found the [Ptolemaic Dynasty](https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/) in Egypt which would last until 30 BCE, ending with the death of his descendant [Cleopatra VII](https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleopatra_VII/) (l. 69-30 BCE).

Seleucus founded the [Seleucid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucid_Empire/) (312-63 BCE), comprising Mesopotamia, [Anatolia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Asia_Minor/), and parts of India, and would be the last remaining of the Diadochi after the incessant 40 years of [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) between them and their heirs. He came to be known as [Seleucus I Nicator](https://www.worldhistory.org/Seleucos_I/) (the unconquered, r. 305-281 BCE). None of Alexander's generals possessed his natural intelligence, understanding, or military genius but, even so, would found dynasties which, with exceptions, ruled their respective regions until the coming of [Rome](https://www.worldhistory.org/Rome/).

Their influence over the regions they controlled created what historians refer to as the Hellenistic Period in which Greek thought and culture became entwined with that of the indigenous populace. According to Diodorus Siculus, one of the stipulations of Alexander's will was the creation of a unified empire between former enemies. People of the Near East were to be encouraged to marry with those of Europe and those of Europe to do likewise; in so doing, a new Hellenistic culture would be embraced by all. Although the Diadochi failed in the peaceful fulfillment of his wishes, through the Hellenization of their empires they contributed to Alexander's dream of cultural unity; even if such unity could never be fully realized.

#### Editorial Review

This human-authored definition has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our [editorial policy](https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/).

## Bibliography

- [Arrian. *Arrian.* Loeb Classical Library, 1976.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0674992601/)
- [Diodorus Siculus. *Diodorus Siculus.* Loeb Classical Library, 1935.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0674993349/)
- [Durant, W. *The Life of Greece.* Simon & Schuster, 2011.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B004ZZS4YA/)
- [Grant, M. *Readings in the Classical Historians.* Scribner, 1993.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0684192454/)
- [Plutarch's Life of Alexander](http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/alexandr.html "Plutarch's Life of Alexander"), accessed 1 Dec 2016.
- [Plutarch. *Plutarch 's Lives selected and edited by John S. White.* New York. G. P. Putnam's Sons, c1883., 1970.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/B002WUC0S6/)
- [Toynbee, A.J. *Greek Historical Thought.* Signet, 1952.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/045160072X/)
- [Waterfield, R. *Dividing the Spoils.* Oxford University Press, USA, 2012.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0199931526/)
- [Winthrop, L.A. *Alexander the Great.* Longman, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/0321086171/)
- [Worthington, I. *Alexander the Great.* Longman, 2004.](https://www.worldhistory.org/books/140580162X/)

## About the Author

Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
- [Linkedin Profile](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339)

## Timeline

- **357 BCE**: Marriage of [Olympias](https://www.worldhistory.org/Olympias/) to [Philip II](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Philip_II/) of Macedonia.
- **21 Jul 356 BCE - 11 Jun 323 BCE**: Life of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **346 BCE**: [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) tames [Bucephalus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bucephalus/), his [war](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/War/) horse.
- **343 BCE**: King [Philip II of Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/Philip_II_of_Macedon/) summons [Aristotle](https://www.worldhistory.org/aristotle/) to tutor his young son [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) (later 'The Great').
- **2 Aug 338 BCE**: The [Battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) of Charonea gives [Athens](https://www.worldhistory.org/Athens/) to the Macedonian victors. [Agora](https://www.worldhistory.org/agora/) takes on Macedonian characteristics.
- **336 BCE - 323 BCE**: Reign of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **335 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) receives [Celtic](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) ambassadors in the Balkans.
- **334 BCE**: [Ephesos](https://www.worldhistory.org/ephesos/) liberated from Persian rule by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **334 BCE**: [Sardis](https://www.worldhistory.org/sardis/) surrenders to [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **334 BCE - 323 BCE**: Campaigns of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **May 334 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) invades the Persian [Achaemenid Empire](https://www.worldhistory.org/Achaemenid_Empire/).
- **May 334 BCE - 324 BCE**: [Antipater](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Antipater/) is regent of [Macedon](https://www.worldhistory.org/macedon/) in [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)'s absence.
- **333 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) conquers Aleppo.
- **5 Nov 333 BCE**: [Battle of Issus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Issus/). [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) is victorious against [Darius](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/darius/) III of [Persia](https://www.worldhistory.org/Persia/).
- **332 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) sacks [Sidon](https://www.worldhistory.org/sidon/).
- **332 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) sacks [Baalbek](https://www.worldhistory.org/Baalbek/) and renames it Heliopolis.
- **332 BCE**: [Conquest](https://www.worldhistory.org/warfare/) of the [Levant](https://www.worldhistory.org/levant/) by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) who destroys [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/).
- **332 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) conquers [Phoenicia](https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/) and turns toward [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **Jan 332 BCE - Jul 332 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) besieges and conquers [Tyre](https://www.worldhistory.org/Tyre/).
- **Dec 332 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) visits the Oracle of [Ammon](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Ammon/) at Siwa and is declared "master of the Universe" and son of Ammon.
- **331 BCE**: [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/) is conquered by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) without resistance.
- **Jan 331 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) founds [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/) at the port town of Rhakotis in [Egypt](https://www.worldhistory.org/egypt/).
- **c. Oct 331 BCE**: [Susa](https://www.worldhistory.org/susa/) surrenders without contest to [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) who sacks it.
- **1 Oct 331 BCE**: [Battle of Gaugamela](https://www.worldhistory.org/Battle_of_Gaugamela/). [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) calls himself "King of Asia."
- **May 330 BCE**: [Persepolis](https://www.worldhistory.org/persepolis/) is burned and looted by [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **329 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) wins a decisive [battle](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/battle/) at the [Iaxartes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Iaxartes/) river against the [Scythians](https://www.worldhistory.org/Scythians/).
- **Jan 329 BCE - May 327 BCE**: [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) conquers [Bactria](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bactria/) and [Sogdiana](https://www.worldhistory.org/sogdiana/).
- **c. Jul 329 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) founds [Alexandria](https://www.worldhistory.org/alexandria/)-Eschate on the [Iaxartes](https://www.worldhistory.org/Iaxartes/) and destroys Cyropolis.
- **327 BCE - 326 BCE**: [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)'s campaign in northern [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/).
- **c. Mar 327 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) marries the Bactrian girl [Roxanne](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roxanne/).
- **May 326 BCE**: [Battle of Hydaspes](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/660/battle-of-hydaspes/) where King Porus of the Paurava kingdom met a disastrous defeat at the hands of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **Jun 326 BCE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of [Bucephalus](https://www.worldhistory.org/Bucephalus/).
- **Sep 326 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) halts his eastward march and turns back from the banks of the river Beas, Punjab, [India](https://www.worldhistory.org/india/).
- **c. 325 BCE - c. 320 BCE**: [Greek](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/greek/) rule in [Gandhara](https://www.worldhistory.org/Gandhara_Civilization/), ending some time after the [death of Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2366/death-of-alexander-the-great/).
- **Jan 324 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) orders restoration work in [Pasargadae](https://www.worldhistory.org/Pasargadae/).
- **Oct 324 BCE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of [Hephaestion](https://www.worldhistory.org/Hephaestion/).
- **323 BCE**: [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/) receives [Celtic](https://www.worldhistory.org/celt/) delegations in [Babylon](https://www.worldhistory.org/babylon/).
- **322 BCE - 275 BCE**: The [Wars of the Diadochi](https://www.worldhistory.org/Wars_of_the_Diadochi/), also known as the Wars of [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/)'s Successors.
- **316 BCE**: [Death](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Death/) of [Olympias](https://www.worldhistory.org/Olympias/), mother of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
- **310 BCE**: Assassination of [Roxanne](https://www.worldhistory.org/Roxanne/) and [Alexander](https://www.worldhistory.org/disambiguation/Alexander/) IV, wife and son of [Alexander the Great](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).

## External Links

- [History of Iran: Arrian, The Anabasis of Alexander: The Battle of Gaugamela](http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/arrian_battle_of_gaugamela.php)
- [Alexander the Great, King of Macedon](http://www.royalty.nu/Europe/Balkan/Alexander.html)
- [Two Great Historians On Alexander the Great, Part One](http://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2010/12/12/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-one/)
- [Alexander the Great](http://ed.ted.com/on/7LxiqnKd)
- [King Porus vs Alexander the Great](https://www.missedinhistory.com/podcasts/king-porus-vs-alexander-the-great.htm)
- [How Did Alexander The Great Die: New Study Has Solution](https://allthatsinteresting.com/alexander-the-great-death)
- [In Our Time, Alexander the Great](https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06d9bkx)
- [YouTube](http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9mBLNOr8rw)
- [List of Rulers of the Ancient Greek World | Lists of Rulers | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gkru/hd_gkru.htm)
- [The Rise of Macedon and the Conquests of Alexander the Great | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm)

## Cite This Work

### APA
Mark, J. J. (2013, November 14). Alexander the Great. *World History Encyclopedia*. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander\_the\_Great/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/)
### Chicago
Mark, Joshua J.. "Alexander the Great." *World History Encyclopedia*, November 14, 2013. [https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander\_the\_Great/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).
### MLA
Mark, Joshua J.. "Alexander the Great." *World History Encyclopedia*, 14 Nov 2013, [https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander\_the\_Great/](https://www.worldhistory.org/Alexander_the_Great/).

## License & Copyright

Submitted by [Joshua J. Mark](https://www.worldhistory.org/user/JPryst/ "User Page: Joshua J. Mark"), published on 14 November 2013. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: [Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en). This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.